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The best 70 racism topics for research paper for you.

September 25, 2020

Racism is one of the most important themes in modern society. While it is true that days of slavery are well behind us, the problem of racism is still rampant in many countries, from the US to China. This is why it has become a common subject in academia.

Racism Topics for Research Paper

So, when you have an assignment on racism, the best way to make it sparkle and get you the best grades is by selecting the best topics. Keep reading to identify 70 excellent racism topics for research paper.

History of Racism Topics for Research Paper

Although racism is painful, it started a long time ago and you can explore its history through the following topics on racism.

  • How colonialism shaped aboriginal racism in Australia.
  • Women’s movement of the 1960s: Did it manage to unite black and white women?
  • Mexican American racism in the US: Why did it intensify in the 20 th century?
  • Analyzing racial prejudice in the 1950s.
  • Was Malcolm X racist? Justify your answer.
  • Can we refer to the ancient Greeks racists?
  • Were the antislavery ideas part of the causes of the Civil War?
  • Exploring racist ideas in Charles Darwin’s work.
  • National identity: Is it connected to racism?
  • Do anthropological researchers fight or help racism?
  • Black poverty and racism in the 20 th century: How are they connected?
  • Analyzing the reactions following the assassination of Martin Luther King. Jr.
  • How is racism depicted in colonialism literature?

Racism Argumentative Topics for Research Paper

Racism often turns into a heated subject of controversy and serious disputes. So, if you want to be part of the discussion, here are some great racism argumentative topics for research paper to consider.

  • Why is racism immoral?
  • Racism and hate crimes in the US: Are they connected?
  • Should we consider Islamophobia racism?
  • Racism: Can we refer to it as a mental disorder?
  • Race: Does it serve any purpose in modern society?
  • Irishness: Should it be considered a show of racism?
  • Prejudice towards ladies in hijab: Is it baseless?
  • Racism: Is it rooted in fear?
  • What countries are the most racist in the EU?
  • Do you agree with the statement, “there will always be color racism?”
  • Prejudice and racism: Are they the same thing.
  • Comic books: Can we consider it racist against black people?

Analytical Research Topics about Racism

Questions about “Why,” “How” and “What next” about racism always lingers in the mind of thoughtful. To get answers to these questions, here are some interesting topics about racism to consider:

  • Explain how racism influenced the formation of the English language.
  • Why do most people prefer marriage partners from the same race?
  • How does racism impact prisoners in the US?
  • Types of racism that exist in the EU?
  • The impact of racism on the mental health of racial minorities.
  • Racial discrimination and police brutality: How are they connected?
  • What are the main effects of racism on the sports industry?
  • A closer look at the use of anti-racist ideas in television commercials.
  • Ageism and racism: Are they different?
  • Analyzing racism in American pop culture.
  • Assessing the racial prejudices in Oscar boycotts.
  • Analyze segregation in the Novel “Sula” by Tula Morrison.
  • Can the “Othello” by Shakespeare be considered racist?
  • Affirmative action: Should it be class-based or group-based?

Interesting Racism Research Topics

Do you want to gain deeper insights into the topic of racism? Here are some great racism research paper topics that you should consider.

  • Capitalism and racism in Japan.
  • A closer look at the theory of protest by Socrates.
  • Homophobic hip-hop music: How does it impact the social attitudes towards the LGBT community?
  • Ten proofs that racism still exist in the United States.
  • What are the different types of racism in the US?
  • The implications of aboriginal discrimination in Australia.
  • How are Muslims discriminated in the UK?
  • Analyzing internalized racism.
  • Authoritarian theory of prejudice.
  • Scapegoat theory: Does it always explain racism? Explain.
  • Is racism responsible for poor social progress?
  • A closer look at the historical figures who fought against racism in history.
  • Analyzing the anti-discrimination laws in Cuba by Fidel Castro.
  • European colonialism: Was it responsible for the spread of racism?

Good Research Topics Dealing with Racism

We all agree that racism is bad, right? Here are some awesome research topics about race and racism and how to deal with it.

  • Dealing with racial prejudices: What are the best strategies?
  • How effective are the US laws in preventing racism.
  • How can leaders deal with racism in their workplace?
  • How can we reduce racial discrimination in education?
  • Is it possible to have a world without racism?
  • Confucianism: Can it help to address the problem of racism?
  • Apartheid and progress in South Africa.
  • Institutional racism: Why is it so difficult to address?
  • Environmental racism: What is it and how can we fight it?
  • Demystify the four types of group interactions: Assimilation, segregation, pluralism, and genocide.
  • Can we justify racism at times?
  • Suggest the main strategies that can be used to end racial discrimination in schools.
  • Can art be used to fight racism?
  • A deeper look at the history of affirmative action.
  • Analyzing the Australia policies and their effectiveness in addressing xenophobia.
  • Analyzing the US efforts to end discrimination against homeless people.
  • Racism and U.S criminal justice system.

Once students have selected their preferred sociology racism topics, the writing journey commences. So, whether you selected a racism topic related to American History or methods of addressing the problem, you will need to have the right resources and top-notch writing skills. If you feel stuck with the paper because of one reason or another, the best option is seeking college research paper help from our experts.

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50+ Essay Topics on Racism for students

Why choose racism essay topics for writing purposes .

There are many reasons why someone might choose to write an essay on racism. For some, it may be a way to explore their own personal experiences with racism. Others may want to raise awareness about the issue, or explore the history of racism in America. Whatever the reason, there are a number of potential essay topics to choose from. One potential topic is to explore the origins of racism in America. This could include a discussion of the slave trade, and how racism has been perpetuated throughout history. Another possibility is to discuss the current state of racism in America. This could include a discussion of the recent events in Charlottesville, Virginia, and how racism is still a very real problem in our country. No matter what topic you choose, it is important to remember that your essay should be well-researched and well-written. Be sure to support your claims with evidence, and be sure to cite your sources. With a little effort, you can write a compelling and thought-provoking essay on racism.

Racism Essay Topics

How To Choose Racism Essay Topics? 

There are a lot of racism essay topics to choose from. However, it can be difficult to decide which one to write about. Here are some tips to help you choose the right topic for your essay:

  • Pick a topic that you are passionate about.
  • Choose a topic that you know something about.
  • Make sure the topic is something that you can research.
  • Be sure to choose a topic that is controversial.
  • Be sure to choose a topic that is interesting to you.

Best Essay Topics on Racism

  • Racism is a social construct that has been used to justify discrimination and violence against certain groups of people
  • Racism is a form of discrimination that is based on the belief that one race is superior to another.
  • Racism can be manifested in the form of individual prejudice, institutional discrimination, or hate crimes.
  • Racism is often used as a justification for xenophobic and anti-immigrant sentiment.
  • Racism has a long history in the United States, dating back to the colonial era.
  • Racism is a global problem that affects people of all races and ethnicities.
  • The rise of Donald Trump and the alt-right has emboldened racists and white supremacists in the United States.
  • The Black Lives Matter movement has brought renewed attention to the problem of racism in America.
  • Racism is a complex issue that cannot be solved overnight.
  • Education is key to combating racism and promoting social justice.

Good Racism Research Topics

  • Racism in America: A History from Slavery to Today
  • The Impact of Racism on African Americans
  • Racism and Discrimination in the Workplace
  • The School-to-Prison Pipeline: How Racism Contributes to the Mass Incarceration of African Americans
  • The Role of Media in Promoting Racism
  • The Impact of Racism on Mental Health
  • Racism and the Criminal Justice System
  • How has racism changed over time?
  • What are the different forms of racism?
  • How does racism affect people?
  • What are the causes of racism?
  • How can racism be prevented?
  • What are the consequences of racism?
  • What are the solutions to racism?
  • Is racism a global problem?
  • How does racism affect society?
  • What is the history of racism?

Easy Racism Essay Topics

  • The history of racism and its impact on society.
  • The different forms of racism and their effects on individuals and society.
  • The role of race in shaping individual and group identity.
  • The ways in which racism is perpetuated through institutional policies and practices.
  • The impact of racism on economic, social, and political life.
  • The challenges of living in a racially diverse society.
  • The role of the media in perpetuating or challenging racism.
  • The impact of racism on personal relationships.
  • The role of education in combating racism.
  • The challenges of addressing racism in the workplace.

Research Questions About Racism

  • How has racism impacted the lives of people of color in the United States?
  • What are the origins of racism in the United States?
  • How has racism changed over time in the United States?
  • What are the current manifestations of racism in the United States?
  • How do people of color experience racism in the United States?
  • What are the psychological effects of racism on people of color in the United States?
  • What are the economic effects of racism on people of color in the United States?
  • What are the educational effects of racism on people of color in the United States?
  • What are the health effects of racism on people of color in the United States?
  • What are the social effects of racism on people of color in the United States?

Argumentative essay topics about racism

  • Racism is a major problem in our society today and it needs to be addressed.
  • Racism is a major barrier to social cohesion and harmony.
  • Racism is a major cause of discrimination and prejudice.
  • Racism is a major source of tension and conflict in our society.

Topics about racism for essay

  • Racism as a social problem.
  • The history of racism and its impact on society..
  • Racism in the criminal justice system.
  • The different forms of racism.
  • Racism in the media.
  • The causes of racism.
  • Racism in the workplace.
  • The effects of racism on individuals and society.
  • Racism in education.
  • Racism and its impact on mental health.

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Home — Blog — Topic Ideas — Essay Topics on Racism: 150 Ideas for Analysis and Discussion

Essay Topics on Racism: 150 Ideas for Analysis and Discussion

essay topics on racism

Here’s a list of 150 essay ideas on racism to help you ace a perfect paper. The subjects are divided based on what you require!

Before we continue with the list of essay topics on racism, let's remember the definition of racism. In brief, it's a complex prejudice and a form of discrimination based on race. It can be done by an individual, a group, or an institution. If you belong to a racial or ethnic group, you are facing being in the minority. As it's usually caused by the group in power, there are many types of racism, including socio-cultural racism, internal racism, legal racism, systematic racism, interpersonal racism, institutional racism, and historical racism. You can also find educational or economic racism as there are many sub-sections that one can encounter.

150 Essay Topics on Racism to Help You Ace a Perfect Essay

General Recommendations

The subject of racism is one of the most popular among college students today because you can discuss it regardless of your academic discipline. Even though we are dealing with technical progress and the Internet, the problem of racism is still there. The world may go further and talk about philosophical matters, yet we still have to face them and explore the challenges. It makes it even more difficult to find a good topic that would be unique and inspiring. As a way to help you out, we have collected 150 racism essay topics that have been chosen by our experts. We recommend you choose something that motivates you and narrow things down a little bit to make your writing easier.

Why Choose a Topic on Racial Issues? 

When we explore racial issues, we are not only seeking the most efficient solutions but also reminding ourselves about the past and the mistakes that we should never make again. It is an inspirational type of work as we all can change the world. If you cannot choose a topic that inspires you, think about recent events, talk about your friend, or discuss something that has happened in your local area. Just take your time and think about how you can make the world a safer and better place.

The Secrets of a Good Essay About Racism 

The secret to writing a good essay on racism is not only stating that racism is bad but by exploring the origins and finding a solution. You can choose a discipline and start from there. For example, if you are a nursing student, talk about the medical principles and responsibilities where every person is the same. Talk about how it has not always been this way and discuss the methods and the famous theorists who have done their best to bring equality to our society. Keep your tone inspiring, explore, and tell a story with a moral lesson in the end. Now let’s explore the topic ideas on racism!

General Essay Topics On Racism 

As we know, no person is born a racist since we are not born this way and it cannot be considered a biological phenomenon. Since it is a practice that is learned and a social issue, the general topics related to racism may include socio-cultural, philosophical, and political aspects as you can see below. Here are the ideas that you should consider as you plan to write an essay on racial issues:

  • Are we born with racial prejudice? 
  • Can racism be unlearned? 
  • The political constituent of the racial prejudice and the colonial past? 
  • The humiliation of the African continent and the control of power. 
  • The heritage of the Black Lives Matter movement and its historical origins. 
  • The skin color issue and the cultural perceptions of the African Americans vs Mexican Americans. 
  • The role of social media in the prevention of racial conflicts in 2022 . 
  • Martin Luther King Jr. and his role in modern education. 
  • Konrad Lorenz and the biological perception of the human race. 
  • The relation of racial issues to nazism and chauvinism.

The Best Racism Essay Topics 

School and college learners often ask about what can be considered the best essay subject when asked to write on racial issues. Essentially, you have to talk about the origins of racism and provide a moral lesson with a solution as every person can be a solid contribution to the prevention of hatred and racial discrimination.

  • The schoolchildren's example and the attitude to the racial conflicts. 
  • Perception of racism in the United States versus Germany. 
  • The role of the scouting movement as a way to promote equality in our society. 
  •  Social justice and the range of opportunities that African American individuals could receive during the 1960s.
  •  The workplace equality and the negative perception of the race when the documents are being filed. 
  •  The institutional racism and the sources of the legislation that has paved the way for injustice. 
  •  Why should we talk to the children about racial prejudice and set good examples ? 
  •  The role of anthropology in racial research during the 1990s in the USA. 
  •  The Black Poverty phenomenon and the origins of the Black Culture across the globe. 
  •  The controversy of Malcolm X’s personality and his transition from anger to peacemaking.

Shocking Racism Essay Ideas 

Unfortunately, there are many subjects that are not easy to deal with when you are talking about the most horrible sides of racism. Since these subjects are sensitive, dealing with the shocking aspects of this problem should be approached with a warning in your introduction part so your readers know what to expect. As a rule, many medical and forensic students will dive into the issue, so these topic ideas are still relevant:

  • The prejudice against wearing a hoodie. 
  •  The racial violence in Western Africa and the crimes by the Belgian government. 
  •  The comparison of homophobic beliefs and the link to racial prejudice. 
  •  Domestic violence and the bias towards the cases based on race. 
  •  Racial discrimination in the field of the sex industry. 
  •  Slavery in the Middle East and the modern cultural perceptions. 
  •  Internal racism in the United States: why the black communities keep silent. 
  •  Racism in the American schools: the bias among the teachers. 
  •  Cyberbullying and the distorted image of the typical racists . 
  •  The prisons of Apartheid in South Africa.

Light and Simple Ideas Regarding Racism

If you are a high-school learner or a first-year college student, your essay on racism may not have to represent complex research with a dozen of sources. Here are some good ideas that are light and simple enough to provide you with inspiration and the basic points to follow:

  • My first encounter with racial prejudice. 
  •  Why do college students are always in the vanguard of social campaigns? 
  •  How are the racial issues addressed by my school? 
  •  The promotion of the African-American culture is a method to challenge prejudice and stereotypes. 
  • The history of blues music and the Black culture of the blues in the United States.
  • The role of slavery in the Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain. 
  •  School segregation in the United States during the 1960s. 
  •  The negative effect of racism on the mental health of a person. 
  •  The advocacy of racism in modern society . 
  •  The heritage of “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” and the modern perception of the historical issues.

Interesting Topics on Racism For an Essay 

Contrary to the popular belief, when you have to talk about the cases of racial prejudice, you will also encounter many interesting essay topic ideas. As long as these are related to your main academic course, you can explore them. Here are some great ideas to consider:

  • Has the perception of Michael Jackson changed because of his skin transition? 
  •  The perception of racial problems by the British Broadcasting Corporation. 
  •  The role of the African American influencers on Instagram. 
  •  The comparison between the Asian students and the Mexican learners in the USA. 
  •  Latin culture and the similarities when compared to the Black culture with its peculiarities. 
  •  The racial impact in the “Boy In The Stripped Pajamas”. 
  •  Can we eliminate racism completely and how exactly, considering the answer is “Yes”? 
  •  Scientific research of modern racism and social media campaigns. 
  •  Why do some people believe that the Black Lives Matter movement is controversial? 
  • Male vs female challenges in relation to racial attitudes.

Argumentative Essay Topics About Race 

An argumentative type of writing requires making a clear statement or posing an assumption that will deal with a particular question. As we are dealing with racial prejudice or theories, it is essential to support your writing with at least one piece of evidence to make sure that you can support your opinion and stand for it as you write. Here are some good African American argumentative essay examples of topics and other ideas to consider:

  •  Racism is a mental disorder and cannot be treated with words alone. 
  •  Analysis of the traumatic experiences based on racial prejudice. 
  •  African-American communities and the sense of being inferior are caused by poverty. 
  •  Reading the memoirs of famous people that describe racial issues often provides a distorted image through the lens of a single person. 
  •  There is no academic explanation of racism since every case is different and is often based on personal perceptions. 
  •  The negatives of the post-racial perception as the latent system that advocates racism. 
  •  The link of racial origins to the concept of feminism and gender inequality. 
  •  The military bias and the merits that are earned by the African-American soldiers. 
  •  The media causes a negative image of the Latin and Mexican youth in the United States. 
  •  Does racism exist in kindergarten and why the youngsters do not think about racial prejudice?

Racism Research Paper Topics 

Dealing with The Black Lives Matter essay , you should focus on those aspects of racism that are not often discussed or researched by the media. You can take a particular case study or talk about the reasons why the BLM social campaign has started and whether the timing has been right. Here are some interesting racism topics for research paper that you should consider:

  • The link of criminal offenses to race is an example of the primary injustice .  
  • The socio-emotional burdens of slavery that one can trace among the representatives of the African-American population. 
  • Study of the cardio-vascular diseases among the American youth: a comparison of the Caucasian and Latin representatives. 
  • The race and the politics: dealing with the racial issues and the Trump administration analysis. 
  • The best methods to achieve medical equality for all people: where race has no place to be. 
  • The perception of racism by the young children: the negative side of trying to educate the youngsters. 
  • Racial prejudice in the UK vs the United States: analysis of the core differences. 
  • The prisons in the United States: why do the Blacks constitute the majority? 
  • The culture of Voodoo and the slavery: the link between the occult practices.
  • The native American people and the African Americans: the common woes they share.

Racism in Culture Topics 

Racism topics for essay in culture are always upon the surface because we can encounter them in books, popular political shows, movies, social media, and more. The majority of college students often ignore this aspect because things easily become confusing since one has to take a stand and explain the point. As a way to help you a little bit, we have collected several cultural racism topic ideas to help you start:

  • The perception of wealth by the Black community: why it differs when researched through the lens of past poverty?  
  • The rap music and the cultural constituent of the African-American community. 
  • The moral constituent of the political shows where racial jargon is being used. 
  • Why the racial jokes on television are against the freedom of speech?  
  • The ways how the modern media promotes racism by stirring up the conflict and actually doing harm. 
  • The isolated cases of racism and police violence in the United States as portrayed by the movies. 
  • Playing with the Black musicians: the history of jazz in the United States. 
  • The social distancing and the perception of isolation by the different races. 
  • The cultural multitude in the cartoons by the Disney Corporations: the pros and cons.
  • From assimilation to genocide: can the African American child make it big without living through the cultural bias?

Racism Essay Ideas in Literature 

One of the best ways to study racism is by reading the books by those who have been through it on their own or by studying the explorations by those who can write emotionally and fight for racial equality where racism has no place to be. Keeping all of these challenges in mind, our experts suggest turning to the books as you can explore racism in the literature by focusing on those who are against it and discussing the cases in the classic literature that are quite controversial.

  • The racial controversy of Ernest Hemingway's writing.  
  • The personal attitude of Mark Twain towards slavery and the cultural peculiarities of the times. 
  • The reasons why "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee book has been banned in libraries. 
  • The "Hate You Give" by Angie Thomas and the analysis of the justified and "legit" racism. 
  • Is the poetry by the gangsta rap an example of hidden racism? 
  • Maya Angelou and her timeless poetry. 
  • The portrayal of xenophobia in modern English language literature. 
  • What can we learn from the "Schilder's List" screenplay as we discuss the subject of genocide? 
  • Are there racial elements in "Othello" or Shakespeare's creation is beyond the subject?
  • Kate Chopin's perception of inequality in "Desiree's Baby".

Racism in Science Essay Ideas 

Racism is often studied by scientists because it's not only a cultural point or a social agenda that is driven by personal inferiority and similar factors of mental distortion. Since we can talk about police violence and social campaigns, it is also possible to discuss things through different disciplines. Think over these racism thesis statement ideas by taking a scientific approach and getting a common idea explained:

  • Can physical trauma become a cause for a different perception of race? 
  • Do we inherit racial intolerance from our family members and friends? 
  • Can a white person assimilate and become a part of the primarily Black community? 
  • The people behind the concept of Apartheid: analysis of the critical factors. 
  • Can one prove the fact of the physical damage of the racial injustice that lasted through the years? 
  • The bond between mental diseases and the slavery heritage among the Black people. 
  • Should people carry the blame for the years of social injustice? 
  • How can we explain the metaphysics of race? 
  • What do the different religions tell us about race and the best ways to deal with it? 
  • Ethnic prejudices based on age, gender, and social status vs general racism.

Cinema and Race Topics to Write About 

As a rule, the movies are also a great source for writing an essay on racial issues. Remember to provide the basic information about the movie or include examples with the quotations to help your readers understand all the major points that you make. Here are some ideas that are worth your attention:

  • The negative aspect of the portrayal of racial issues by Hollywood.  
  • Should the disturbing facts and the graphic violence be included in the movies about slavery? 
  • Analysis of the "Green Mile" movie and the perception of equality in our society.  
  • The role of music and culture in the "Django Unchained" movie. 
  • The "Ghosts of Mississippi" and the social aspect of the American South compared to how we perceive it today. 
  • What can we learn from the "Malcolm X" movie created by Spike Lee? 
  • "I am Not Your Negro" movie and the role of education through the movies. 
  • "And the Children Shall Lead" the movie as an example that we are not born racist. 
  • Do we really have the "Black Hollywood" concept in reality? 
  • Do the movies about racial issues only cause even more racial prejudice?

Race and Ethnic Relations 

Another challenging problem is the internal racism and race and ethnicity essay topics that we can observe not only in the United States but all over the world as well. For example, the Black people in the United States and the representatives of the rap music culture will divide themselves between the East Coast and the West Coast where far more than cultural differences exist. The same can be encountered in Afghanistan or in Belgium. Here are some essay topics on race and ethnicity idea samples to consider:

  • The racial or the ethnic conflict? What can we learn from Afghan society? 
  • Religious beliefs divide us based on ethnicity . 
  • What are the major differences between ethnic and racial conflicts? 
  • Why we are able to identify the European Black person and the Black coming from the United States? 
  • Racism and ethnicity's role in sports. 
  • How can an ethnic conflict be resolved with the help of anti-racial methods? 
  • The medical aspect of being an Asian in the United States. 
  • The challenges of learning as an African American person during the 1950s. 
  • The role of the African American people in the Vietnam war and their perception by the locals. 
  • Ethnicity's role in South Africa as the concept of Apartheid has been formed.

Biology and Racial Issues 

If you are majoring in Biology or would like to research this side of the general issue of race, it is essential to think about how we can fight racism in practice by turning to healthcare or the concepts that are historical in their nature. Although we cannot explain slavery per se other than by turning to economics and the rule of power that has no justification, biologists believe that racial challenges can be approached by their core beliefs as well.

  • Can we create an isolated non-racist society in 2022? 
  • If we assume that a social group has never heard of racism, can it occur? 
  • The physical versus cultural differences in the racial inequality cases? 
  • The biological peculiarities of the different races? 
  • Do we carry the cultural heritage of our race? 
  • Interracial marriage through the lens of Biology. 
  • The origins of the racial concept and its evolution. 
  • The core ways how slavery has changed the African-American population. 
  • The linguistic peculiarities of the Latin people. 
  • The resistance of the different races towards vaccination.

Modern Racism Topics to Consider 

In case you would like to deal with a modern subject that deals with racism, you can go beyond the famous Black Lives Matter movement by focusing on the cases of racism in sports or talking about the peacemakers or the famous celebrities who have made a solid difference in the elimination of racism.

  • The Global Citizen campaign is a way to eliminate racial differences. 
  • The heritage of Aretha Franklin and her take on the racial challenges. 
  • The role of the Black Stars in modern society: the pros and cons. 
  • Martin Luther King Day in the modern schools. 
  • How can Instagram help to eliminate racism? 
  • The personality of Michelle Obama as a fighter for peace. 
  • Is a society without racism a utopian idea? 
  • How can comic books help youngsters understand equality? 
  • The controversy in the death of George Floyd. 
  • How can we break down the stereotypes about Mexicans in the United States?

Racial Discrimination Essay Ideas 

If your essay should focus on racial discrimination, you should think about the environment and the type of prejudice that you are facing. For example, it can be in school or at the workplace, at the hospital, or in a movie that you have attended. Here are some discrimination topics research paper ideas that will help you to get started:

  • How can a schoolchild report the case of racism while being a minor?  
  • The discrimination against women's rights during the 1960s. 
  • The employment problem and the chances of the Latin, Asian, and African American applicants. 
  • Do colleges implement a certain selection process against different races? 
  • How can discrimination be eliminated via education? 
  • African-American challenges in sports. 
  • The perception of discrimination, based on racial principles and the laws in the United States. 
  • How can one report racial comments on social media? 
  • Is there discrimination against white people in our society? 
  • Covid-19 and racial discrimination: the lessons we have learned.

Find Even More Essay Topics On Racism by Visiting Our Site 

If you are unsure about what to write about, you can always find an essay on racism by visiting our website. Offering over 150 topic ideas, you can always get in touch with our experts and find another one!

5 Tips to Make Your Essay Perfect

  • Start your essay on racial issues by narrowing things down after you choose the general topic. 
  • Get your facts straight by checking the dates, the names, opinions from both sides of an issue, etc. 
  • Provide examples if you are talking about the general aspects of racism. 
  • Do not use profanity and show due respect even if you are talking about shocking things. The same relates to race and ethnic relations essay topics that are based on religious conflicts. Stay respectful! 
  • Provide references and citations to avoid plagiarism and to keep your ideas supported by at least one piece of evidence.

Recommendations to Help You Get Inspired

Speaking of recommended books and articles to help you start with this subject, you should check " The Ideology of Racism: Misusing Science to Justify Racial Discrimination " by William H. Tucker who is a professor of social sciences at Rutgers University. Once you read this great article, think about the poetry by Maya Angelou as one of the best examples to see the practical side of things.

The other recommendations worth checking include:

- How to be Anti-Racist by Ibram X. Kendi . - White Fragility by Robin Diangelo . - So You Want to Talk About Race by Ijeoma Oluo .

The Final Word 

We sincerely believe that our article has helped you to choose the perfect essay subject to stir your writing skills. If you are still feeling stuck and need additional help, our team of writers can assist you in the creation of any essay based on what you would like to explore. You can get in touch with our skilled experts anytime by contacting our essay service for any race and ethnicity topics. Always confidential and plagiarism-free, we can assist you and help you get over the stress!

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racism research paper topics

226 Racism Essay Topics

Racism is a vast theme to explore and comprises many thought-provoking issues. Here, we collected the most interesting racism essay topics, with which you can investigate the issue of racism. We recommend you explore the historical roots of racism and the systemic structures that sustain it. Use our research topics about racism to write a paper on racial identity, cultural diversity, or the role of education in combatting racism.

✊ TOP 10 Essay Topics about Racism

🏆 best racism essay topics, 👍 racism topics for essay & research, 📌 easy research topics about racism, 🎓 interesting racism essay titles, ✍️ racism essay topics for college, ❓ more essay topics about racism.

  • Racism in Ken Liu’s “The Paper Menagerie”
  • Racism: “Born a Crime” by Trevor Noah
  • Examples of Racism in The Great Gatsby
  • Portrayal of Racism in Forster’s ‘a Passage to India’
  • Racism and Its Effects on Our Society
  • Racism: “The White Man’s Burden” by Rudyard Kipling
  • Racism in Nivea’s “White Is Purity” Ad Campaign
  • Colorblind Racism in “The Help” Film
  • Racism and Injustice in “Monster” Novel by Myers
  • Sociological Perspectives on Racism
  • Racism in the “Devil in a Blue Dress” Film The film Devil in a Blue Dress introduces many topics for discussion, including the racial problem in the United States.
  • Carl Hart’s Talk on Racism, Poverty, and Drugs In his TED Talk, Carl Hart, a professor of neuroscience at Columbia University who studies drug addiction, exposes a relationship between racism, poverty, and drugs.
  • Institutional Racism Against Native Americans: The Killers of the Flower Moon David Grann published The Killers of the Flower Moon about the murders in Oklahoma in the 1920s and contributed to the creation of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).
  • Racism in “Native Son” by Richard Wright Racism does not vanish when Whites are able to convince themselves that they are no longer villains, consciously promoting negative attitude about minorities.
  • Impact of Kendrick Lamar Music on Racism The essay hypothesizes that Lamar’s music has conducted to a progress in abolishing racism by cultivating tolerant attitude in the society towards Afro-American population.
  • Is Racism a Natural Condition of Human Society? The discussion around the new wave of the “Black Lives Matter” movement in the United States, for instance, proves that it stays the burning issue of most communities even today.
  • Racism in Foster’s “Elegy of Color”, Hurston’s “Sweat,” and Wilson’s “Fences” This research focuses on Foster’s poem “Elegy of Color,” Hurston’s book “Sweat,” and Wilson’s play “Fences” which provide a historical context for the understanding of racism.
  • Racism in Campus of the Montclair State University Effect Depending on the student’s high school and neighborhood segregation, the level of diverse thinking and acknowledgment is seriously determined by these factors.
  • The Impact of Racism on Globalization Racism is a great impediment to globalization, the bad blood between the said people of color and those of no color has dealt a big blow to development.
  • Racism in the Music Video: Locked Up and Styles P Using the music video Locked Up by Akon featuring Styles P, this paper discusses the significance of race and racial representation in the media.
  • The Trauma of Enduring Racism and Ethnic Hatred: They Called Us Enemy This essay aims to discuss the effects of racism and ethnic hatred, as illustrated in the story They Called Us Enemy by George Takei.
  • Racism in “Being Brought From Africa to America” and “A Letter From Phyllis Wheatley” Both poems “Being Brought From Africa to America” and “A Letter From Phyllis Wheatley” are great reflections on the racism issue, and even now, their demand is not decreasing.
  • Racism: A Party Down at the Square Ellison’s narrative, A party down at the square, depicts public lynching at Southern point. It gives the reasons we must all stand for equality and eradicate racism.
  • Racism & Sexism: Black Women’s Experiences in Tennis Research suggests that exclusion and discrimination strategies are still being used to limit the chances and advancement accessible to colored minority groups.
  • Imperialism and Racism During the Colonial Period This analysis of primary sources aims to demonstrate how various historical actors interpreted imperialism during different periods.
  • Racism and White Supremacy in the USA Approximately 38% of Latinos/Hispanics in the US have noted experiencing some level of harassment, discrimination, or public criticism for their ethnicity.
  • Overcoming Racism in Environmental Decision Making Building a city for humans to live requires the construction of many industrial sites, living next to which is unsafe, thus ethnic minorities would be the ones predominately living there.
  • Racism Against African Americans as a Social Construct The relationship between African Americans and whites in the US demonstrates that racism is perpetuated by individuals through their actions and interactions.
  • Criminal Justice System and the Problem of Racism The issue of institutional racism continues to be prominent within the criminal justice system in England and Wales.
  • “Interrogating Racism: Toward an Antiracist Anthropology” and “Economics” The article “Interrogating racism: Toward antiracist anthropology” (2005) discusses the issue of racism in anthropological studies.
  • How Racism Makes Us Sick The expectations of discrimination lead to poorer health outcomes, both in the case of mental and physical health.
  • Racial Injustice, Racial Discrimination, and Racism Racial injustice is a serious issue in today’s society. It has negative effects on a multitude of people’s personal and social development.
  • Social Psychology: Race, Racism, and Discrimination Understanding race, racism, and discrimination are equally important since the whole matter of race and racism revolves around the human ethnic background.
  • Systemic Racism and Its Impact on Development In more or less veiled forms, racism, including everyday racism, has spread quite widely in some regions and social strata and manifests itself in a variety of forms.
  • The Phenomenon of Racism The purpose of this paper is to discuss the texts of Anzaldúa, Fayad, Smith and Roppolo, who have addressed the topic of racism.
  • Environmental Racism and Environmental Justice One should not tolerate that a certain percentage of city residents live in much worse environmental conditions than all others – it is necessary to modernize the industry.
  • Ethnocentrism and Racism in Child Development The case of a 14-year-old biracial girl will be analyzed to investigate the effects of ethnocentrism and racism in child development, especially during the adolescent period.
  • Racism and Ethnicity in the US Race and ethnicity in the United States are not based on any spelled out criteria and consequently, various people may label a certain group of people variously.
  • Rasism in the USA: Personal Experience The fight against ethnicity and racism still has a long way to go and not unless everyone develops a new mentality, the world will remain a venue filled with racism.
  • Racism Against Afro-Americans in Wilson’s “Fences” Play Fences is a play by August Wilson, an American playwright, a Pulitzer’s laureate, who wrote about the life of African Americans in different periods of the 20th century.
  • Symbolism and Racism in Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird” In the book “To Kill a Mockingbird,” symbolism has been used as the vessel by which racism is expressed indirectly, so readers explore the meaning behind such symbols.
  • Racism and Masculinity in the Film “A Soldier’s Story” In this paper, we will discuss “A Soldier’s Story,” and see how racial prejudice and the ideas of dominating masculinity lead to a disaster to a number of its characters.
  • American Racism in “Men We Reaped” by Jesmyn Ward Men We Reaped is Jesmyn Ward’s account of the economic realities of her DeLisle hometown illustrate the poor historical race relations in America.
  • Racism in American Education After the slavery abolishment colored Americans were allowed to visit schools, but in most cases these were separate schools.
  • Racism and Pessimism in Wilson’s Play “Fences” August Wilson’s play “Fences” exemplifies the detrimental impacts of racial discrimination on the well-being of ethnic and racial minorities.
  • Racism and Oppression in “Native Son” by Wright The book Native Son is an engaging book by Wright that gives astonishing accounts relating to racism, segregation, and oppression.
  • Racism and Social Injustice in Warriors Don’t Cry The book under consideration illustrates some of the strategies African Americans used to address racism in the United States in the first part of the twentieth century
  • Fredrickson’s Racism: A Short History This book covers the many aspects of racism, the history behind the phenomenon, and how the world now views racism, whether it takes it seriously.
  • Malcolm X and Anne Moody on Racism in the US In The Autobiography of Malcolm X by Malcolm X and Coming of Age in Mississippi by Anne Moody, the authors describe life challenges faced in the US in the 20th century.
  • The Portrayal of Racism in Literary Works Each work reveals different aspects of racism in America, from social discrimination and segregation to economic exploitation.
  • Racism Issue in the Play “A Raisin in the Sun” by Bill Duke The renowned play A Raisin in the Sun, directed by Bill Duke, depicts the challenges and biases endured by black families in America.
  • Racism in the USA: Organizational Behavior In the USA, there still exists widespread racism despite campaigns against the vice. People are subjected to discrimination because of differences in factors such as gender.
  • Racism Against African Americans and Its Effects Racism has significantly affected African-Americans’ social status due to negative perceptions and biases held concerning them.
  • Racism in Modern Canada: Taking Action as a Helping Professional Cases of racial and ethnic discrimination, xenophobia, and related intolerance, which occur daily, impede the improvement of the lives of millions of people around the world.
  • Health Care Policy: Eliminating Systemic Racism The paper states that the policy can be considered a stepping stone for meaningful change in eliminating systemic racism from the healthcare industry.
  • Racism Against the Blacks in the UK The UK is one of the most ethnically diversified countries, with residents from different parts of the world and various cultural backgrounds.
  • On White Privilege, Colorblindness, and Racism Critical Race Theory (CRT) is one of the approaches that attempt to address the issue of racism by identifying and investigating perpetual racial injustices.
  • Experiences of Institutional Racism at an Early Age The paper examines how experiences of institutional racism at an early age translate to orientations towards activism in the black community.
  • Racism, Social-Economic Status, and the Dominant Story Disparities in the distribution of social benefits such as education, healthcare, and employment are among the dominant stories in the United States (US).
  • Racism in Toni Morrison’s “Recitatif” Like Morrison’s other work, Recitatif focuses on the issue of prejudice and racial identity. However, in the short story, the races of the main characters are concealed.
  • Racism, Ethnoviolence, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder The paper states that experiencing racism can induce post-traumatic stress disorder. Most people do not draw a link between racism and PTSD.
  • The Ideas and Perspectives of Literary Works About Slavery and Racism The essay aims to provide insights into opinions about the ideas and perspectives of literary works about slavery, racism, and the oppression of African-Americans.
  • Racism as a Crime Racism is one of the oldest and most reprehensible forms of crime, which manifests itself in discrimination against people based on their racial or national origin. It is expressed through statements, actions, or policies that divide people. Racism creates prejudices and demonizes others, leading to a lack of access to…
  • Researching of Structural Racism Structural racism presents an issue that includes several institutions. Moreover, the interconnectedness between these institutions represents a major problem for people of color.
  • Racism as a Modern-Day Societal Challenge This essay analyzes racism as a modern-day societal challenge and proposes policies and measures that may help curb the issue.
  • So Cal’s Water Agency: Racism, Sexual Harassment, and Retaliation So Cal’s Water Agency has reported racial discrimination, sexual harassment, and retaliation cases. Practices of unequal hiring have been experienced by employees in this agency.
  • Doping: Racism and Discrimination of Athletes The issue of discrimination is linked to the point of doping by athletes, which significantly amplifies the implications for the fundamental values of sport.
  • Color-Blind Society and Racism Individuals would be seen as individuals without regard to race. This concept has been gaining traction recently.
  • Asian and Latin Americans’ Experience of Racism The article discusses the similarities and differences in the experience of racism faced by Asian and Latin Americans and highlights issues such as discrimination.
  • Systemic Racism in the US: Systemic Racism and America Today Discrimination in the US is an issue that has been dealt with for decades; however, there are no signs of it ending.
  • Racism: How Bigotry and Hate Runs Through History Courtesy of racial distinctions, the Europeans considered themselves more concrete in terms of reasoning and used racism as a convenient exploitation justification.
  • Racism in Modern American Society Racism is one of the common social problems within the American community, thus incorporating competent solutions through policies.
  • The Discrimination, Prejudice, and Racism Concepts This paper discusses the concepts of discrimination, prejudice, and racism, their relationship with each other, and how they affect society.
  • Racism and Biases Based on Social Issues and Attitudes Racism is a complicated occurrence, and this essay focuses on analyzing bias based on language use, power control, social issues, and social attitudes.
  • Critical Thinking and Racism in Modern Times The new definition of racism is a belief that human capacities are determined by race and that differences in race lead to one race being viewed as superior to another race.
  • American Church’s Complicity in Racism This article demonstrates the theological challenge that slavery posed to the American church during the Civil War.
  • Decolonization as a Response to Racism and Discrimination Decolonization as a term is often connected to the second half of the 20th century when countries of the Global South gained their formal independence from the colonial powers.
  • Overcoming Racism in the United States in the 1960s This paper will discuss how rampant racism prevented U.S. society in the 1960s from progressing forward as a nation.
  • Overcoming Racism in “The Blood of Jesus” Film Belittling the status of a person based on his gender or race is impossible and terrible in modern society, but it is the tendency of the present time.
  • New World Slavery and Racism in Society The effects of slavery and racial ideology can be observed even after the official abolition of this policy. There is racial discrimination in labor and health care.
  • Defining Race in Brazil and Racism Reducing The intent of the Brazilian government to reduce racism are noble, but the stratified classification is creating more identity challenges and making it hard to implement programs.
  • Native Americans in Schools: Effects of Racism Despite the improvement in educational policies, racism against Native Americans is still a problem in the education sector.
  • Psychological Perspectives on Racism This paper provides an insight into the nature of racism and largely contributes to people’s victory over racial and ideological prejudices.
  • Reconstruction in the United States: The Structural Racism The failure of the Reconstruction was unavoidable, and structural racism continued to plague the territory of the South with a higher intensity.
  • “The Costs of Racism to White People” by P. Kivel The article “The Costs of Racism to White People” by Paul Kivel examines the price of racial discrimination for representatives of the white population.
  • The Color of Compromise: The Truth About the American Church’s Complicity in Racism Personality development is essential for personal growth and involves different assessments, including awareness, relationships, and commitment.
  • Diversity, Racism, and Identity in the United States American society experiences a new wave of disagreements and debates on the most fundamental topics of American democracy functioning.
  • Environmental Racism as Rights Infringement This paper focuses on the problem of environmental racism from the point of view of discrimination and infringement of the rights of the “oppressed” category of society.
  • Researching the History of Racism The history of racism shows that it has evolved over time. Namely, the starting point was the radicalized violent behavior of the privileged people towards discriminated ones
  • Slavery and Racism: History and Linkage Slavery has changed over time; this institution in the ancient world was different from its modern forms; in particular, the Atlantic slave trade added a racial aspect to it.
  • The Issues of Racism, Sexism, and Homophobia Racism, sexism, and homophobia are more evident in white communities and other religious groups that have difficulty drawing the same levels of public disgrace.
  • The Asian Racism: Joel Best’s Constructivism In this essay, the social problem of modern Asian racism will be analyzed according to the framework of Joel Best’s theoretical model.
  • The Theoretical Origin of the Concept of Racism The paper raises the topic of the theoretical origin of the concept of racism. The initial understanding of racism has undergone significant changes.
  • Individual and Systemic Racism No law applies only to one race and does not apply to another. If there is a violation of the law, there is a judicial system to deal with the problem.
  • Issue of Racism in Colonial Haiti The paper states that the understanding of racism in Haiti, at the time called St. Domingue, was different even among the people at the time.
  • Civil Rights Movement and Construction of US Racism Racism is associated with slurs, Islamophobia, police brutality, and Donald Trump. This list signals that racism today is a more insidious, politicized form of discrimination.
  • Racism and Its Impact on Society Racism negatively impacts society due to its destructive nature and contributes to the division of society, although the government can liquidate it.
  • Racism in Employment from Conley’s Viewpoint Racial issues can still prevent a person from getting a job or earning a decent wage, as black people are still left out because of the occupation of business by white people.
  • Researching the Racism and Race Due to centuries of colonialism and the subjugation of other cultures by the European one, racism can deservedly be called the worst blight on the history of humankind.
  • James Baldwin’s Essays on Racism and Slavery By studying Baldwin’s reflection on the nature of racism, its link to slavery, and its traces in the American community, one can understand the nature of modern racism.
  • Racism and Prejudice: People’s Experiences The existence of prejudice and racism in present-day society shapes people’s experiences in a negative way and reduces their life chances of well-being.
  • Racism, Its Origins, and Evolution Racism is a broad subject; therefore, it is crucial to explore the historical origin of the idea of race and how race and racism have evolved with time.
  • American Racism, Violence, and Brutality in the 21st Century Despite the long journey from slavery to freedom, people continued to fight violence and hate crimes against the Black population in the 21st century.
  • How Black Lives Matter Movement Fights Racism The paper discusses the Black Lives Matter movement. It actively fights racism and murders of black people by police officers.
  • How Structural Racism Is Addressed by Open Science Structural racism is a problem that has persisted in society for a significant period. It becomes a danger and an issue requiring significant attention.
  • Colorblind Racism and Race-Based Medicine Many people tend to claim that the modern United States is equal and democratic, and it is an example of colorblind life when individuals ignore racist issues.
  • Analysis of Structural Racism in Healthcare The paper argues structural racism in health care is a problem with historical roots and extends far beyond the health sector.
  • Socety’s Problem: Family and Racism The paper provides annotated bibliography about sociology imperfections, racism and family problems in modern world.
  • The Persistence of White Racism in the United States In the present day, white Americans consider White racism a thing of the past. On the contrary, the population of color in America reports more incidents of racism.
  • Racism and White Privilege and Benefits The paper discusses and critiques how racism and white privilege can be observed as separate constructs and how they can interact.
  • Systemic Racism in the United States Racism is one of those concepts the current American society tries to eliminate, and significant effort is being put into stopping discrimination against people of color.
  • Dealing With the Issue of Medical Racism Racial issues in healthcare persist and continue to harm African-American people, it is possible to change the status quo by raising racial awareness and cultural sensitivity.
  • Racism: Scene for Screenplay Illustrating Racism A scene for screenplay – a father-son after school conversation about racism. The boy wanted to join the group, but two boys were against it because the boy is black.
  • Reflection on Racism as a Social Injustice “13th” is a documentary directed by Ava DuVernay, which was produced in 2016 and explored the major elements are justice, race, and mass killings in the US.
  • Taking Joined Action to Confront Anti-Black Racism in Toronto The neighborhoods with the highest percentage of minorities have the lowest income per household rate, while the areas populated mostly by white Canadians thrive.
  • The Climate of Social Justice, Racism, COVID-19, and Other Issues The paper argues ideas of music, culture and society are contended to be inseparably connected, which can be clarified through the space of ethnomusicology.
  • Analysis of Environmental Racism in America Despite the decades-long struggle against racism, its effects are still tragically visible in present-day American society.
  • Environmental Racism: Analyzing the Phenomenon The evolution of the industry, the rise of the consumer society, and the unwise use of resources placed people in a disaster because of the deterioration of the environment.
  • From Slavery to Racism: Historical Background Racism did not spur slavery or encourage it; instead, it was used to justify a phenomenon that would exist nonetheless due to the economic situation in the world at the time.
  • Cultural Racism in the Current Day The cultural-psychological perspective suggests that intervention is better aimed at large real-world, societal cues of racism.
  • Racial Disparities in Healthcare Through the Lens of Systemic Racism Racism and inequality in healthcare are serious and complex issues of today’s society that must be widely addressed for them to be acknowledged and finally changed.
  • Examining Racism in American 21st Century Society Although racism is no longer outrightly practiced as it used to be two hundred years ago, it has evolved and manifested in different forms.
  • Settler Society and Structural Racism The paper discusses white privilege. It is described by Johnson in detail as the process by which he used to acquire wealth.
  • Comparative Analysis of Three Books about Racism The books presented in the paper reflect on race and racism from different perspectives, but they may share some sentiments.
  • Fighting Racism Behavior Towards the Latino Community The public health system is one of the most prominent representatives of racial inequality, which affects the state of body and mind of Americans of color.
  • Ethical Considerations on Affirmative Action: Racism The high level of relevance of race issues in the United States has continuously imposed equality considerations on multiple levels of human interactions.
  • Personal Connections to Racism: A Very Short Introduction The reading made me more aware of two examples of such representation: the Futurama animation series and the Native American mascot controversy.
  • Environmental Justice Framework and Racism The environmental justice framework and environmental racism are related since there is a need to involve all people and treat them equally when enforcing environmental policies.
  • Racism, Racial Profiling and Bias in the War on Drugs Racial profiling occurs when law enforcement bases their criminal investigations on race, ethnicity, or religion, which in the process undermines human rights and freedom.
  • Eric Williams: Slavery Was Not Born Out of Racism In “Capitalism and Slavery,” Williams writes: “Slavery was not born out of racism: rather, racism was the consequence of slavery”.
  • Racism in the United States of America Racism is a serious problem that has affected American society for many centuries. It can be perpetrated in an overt (direct) or covert (indirect) manner.
  • Racism: Ku Klux Klan Case Study The Ku Klux Klan is considered as one of most racist and anti-Semantic group in the US, it employs all forms of techniques to achieve its interests.
  • Racism in the 21st Century Problem Analysis The existence of racism in modern education and healthcare systems undermines efforts to eliminate it in other areas.
  • Policing Racism as a Solvable Problem: A TED Talk Goff’s TED talk video “How We Can Make Racism a Solvable Problem and Improve Policing” triggers feelings of sympathy, surprise, and disgust.
  • Systemic Racism and the American Justice System Taking into account reliable data and recent events in the United States of America, it is evident that racial discrimination is deeply ingrained in the justice system.
  • The Problems of Racism in Modern Society Racism is one of the oldest problems known to society. This paper focuses on the analysis of ideas about segregation based on data from two sources.
  • Racism & Privilege Within the Social Work Setting Racism and privilege are not the same, but their relationship cannot be ignored. Racism gave birth to privilege by translating beliefs into actions.
  • Internal Racism in the Movie Amreeka Refusal to an individual to work, based solely on nationality, is an example of how xenophobia meets its modern manifestation.
  • Racism and Impact of Racial Discrimination Racial discrimination occurs in different forms such as interpersonal level as well as in institutions and organizations through procedures, policies, and practices.
  • Racism, Crime and Justice and Growing-Up Bad Disproportionate discrimination of the black and Asian youths by justice and law enforcement agencies in Britain is a product of a multiplicity of factors.
  • Racism Against Health Care Workers In today’s world, the damaging problem of the racial disparities keeps affecting the workers of the health care systems, as well as its patients.
  • Research Methods in Psychology. Methods against Racism Actions and expressions are the two elements of being anti-racist. If one wants to shun racism, they must serve as an example by dealing with the mischief when it occurs.
  • Institutional Racism Mitigation in Criminal Justice, Education, and Health Systems From the 1990s, the concept of institutional racism gained a new meaning, new to the challenges and gaps that many people from minority groups were recording.
  • Causes of Racism and Racial Discrimination Racism refers to the institution of prejudice against other people based on a particular racial or ethnic group membership. Racial bias causes low self-esteem.
  • Institutional Racism Existing in the United States People of all skin colors are infuriated by the murders of African Americans by the racist police officers, their violence, and abuse of innocent people who did nothing wrong.
  • Discrimination and Racism in Cobb County I want to tackle the problem of institutional racism in my community of Cobb County, Georgia. I decided to focus on the subject of racial relations.
  • The Color Line: Racism in Dubois’ and Zinn’s Works Many blacks still live in adverse conditions and have no development opportunities. Neither a good education, nor a well-paid job, nor adequate housing are available to them.
  • The Problem of Racism and Its Possible Origins The article written by Tim Parrish discusses the problem of racism, its possible origins, and steps that could be taken to lessen the issue.
  • Racism and Kingdom Ethics. Main Aspects Addressing racism in the church requires critical attention. There is a need for the church to be a role model to the entire society on the ways of combating racism.
  • Racism May Be Natural in Modern Society Racism as an acknowledgment of genetic and cultural diversity in the modern world is quite a feature of society.
  • Racism Is the Problem of Society This paper provides evidence that racism is the problem of society, and it affects every person in the world. Racism is an issue that correlates with inequality in society.
  • Racism: Black Lives Matter Central Idea Black Lives Matter’s central idea is to point out the unfair treatment of this ethnicity in the United States. The BLM movement highlights the implicit biases.
  • How is Systemic Racism Becoming a News Spectacle? This paper describes “How is Systemic Racism Becoming a News Spectacle?”, writing about its introduction, body completeness, and development, conclusions, and documentation.
  • Does System Racism Exist in the USA? Centuries of racism and discrimination have made this chasm even wider for black families, cut off from the opportunities and resources available to whites.
  • Persistent Racism in the United States The racial issue has always occupied a central place in American history, and a modern melting pot cannot exist without conflict.
  • Racism Within the Public Health Framework In terms of the following paper, racism will be analyzed in the public health framework to outline major recommendations towards the issue resolution.
  • American Psychological Association and Racism The chipping in of the APA on matters concerning racism, xenophobia and racial bigotry led to the abolition of unfair treatments to the blacks in early 2001.
  • South Africa’s Handling of Racism and Ethnic Relations: How They Compare With Those of the USA The discriminative moves sparked racial tensions in both countries, both governments were obliged to formulate the strategies that advocated for rights to all citizens.
  • Negro Kids: Racism in American Schools
  • Modern Racism Concepts and Types
  • Homophobia and Racism and Other Issues
  • Racism in Breast Cancer Treatment
  • Specific Racism Against Chinese Americans
  • The Notion of Colorblind Racism
  • Racism and Social Reform Movements in the United States
  • Racism in Minnesota in Relation to the Klu Klux Klan
  • Racism in Minnesota: Archival Research Paper
  • Institutionalised Racism – Myth or Reality?
  • Color-Blind Racism as a New Face of Racism in Contemporary Society
  • Racism Effects in “Warriors Don’t Cry” by Melba Beals
  • A Plan to Reduce Racism in Medicine
  • Ethnical Ambiguousness as a Band-Aid for Racism
  • America’s Band-Aid for Racism Is the Ethnically Ambiguous
  • Ethnically Ambiguous – America’s Band-Aid for Racism
  • Racism in “Get Out” Movie: Rhetorical Discussion
  • Racism in American Schools: NCLB Problems
  • Racism and Its Definition Challenge
  • Racism in the Contemporary America
  • Workplace Racism in Public Service Organization
  • American Racism in Coates’ The Case for Reparations
  • Racism and Inequality in the United States
  • Dismantling Institutional Racism: Effects and Possible Solutions
  • Problem of Racism in the Modern World
  • Dove’s Racism in Promoting New Shower Foam
  • African-Americans Racism and Discrimination
  • Racism and Constructing Otherness in the US
  • Divisiveness and Mismatching in Anti-Racism
  • Problems and Cultivation of Racism
  • Racism Problem at Institutional and Interactional Levels
  • Racism in the United States Judicial System
  • Racism in America: Discrimination and Prejudice
  • Racism Causes and Impacts in America
  • Racism in American Schools
  • Racism in America between 1783 and 1836
  • Racism and Discrimination towards African-Americans
  • Racism as “The Case for Reparations” by Coates
  • What Extent Can Racism Be Prevented in Society?
  • How Educational Institutions Perpetuate Racism?
  • How Does Racism and Prejudice Affect America?
  • Does Affirmative Action Solve Racism?
  • Does Racism Exist Still?
  • Has Racism Gotten Better in the Modern World?
  • How Different Young Australians Experience Racism?
  • Have You Experienced Racism in Korea?
  • What Contribution Has Science Made to the Development of Racism?
  • How Does Racism Influence Genocide?
  • Did You Know That Racism No Longer Exists?
  • How Does Racism Really Play?
  • Does Huck Finn Represent Racism?
  • How Does Racism Affect the Way of a Caste Like System?
  • Does Brexit Trigger Racism?
  • Do Racism and Discrimination Still Exist Today?
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  • Study protocol
  • Open access
  • Published: 28 March 2019

The impact of racism on the future health of adults: protocol for a prospective cohort study

  • James Stanley   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8572-1047 1 ,
  • Ricci Harris 2 ,
  • Donna Cormack 2 ,
  • Andrew Waa 2 &
  • Richard Edwards 1  

BMC Public Health volume  19 , Article number:  346 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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Racial discrimination is recognised as a key social determinant of health and driver of racial/ethnic health inequities. Studies have shown that people exposed to racism have poorer health outcomes (particularly for mental health), alongside both reduced access to health care and poorer patient experiences. Most of these studies have used cross-sectional designs: this prospective cohort study (drawing on critical approaches to health research) should provide substantially stronger causal evidence regarding the impact of racism on subsequent health and health care outcomes.

Participants are adults aged 15+ sampled from 2016/17 New Zealand Health Survey (NZHS) participants, sampled based on exposure to racism (ever exposed or never exposed, using five NZHS questions) and stratified by ethnic group (Māori, Pacific, Asian, European and Other). Target sample size is 1680 participants (half exposed, half unexposed) with follow-up survey timed for 12–24 months after baseline NZHS interview. All exposed participants are invited to participate, with unexposed participants selected using propensity score matching (propensity scores for exposure to racism, based on several major confounders). Respondents receive an initial invitation letter with choice of paper or web-based questionnaire. Those invitees not responding following reminders are contacted for computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI).

A brief questionnaire was developed covering current health status (mental and physical health measures) and recent health-service utilisation (unmet need and experiences with healthcare measures). Analysis will compare outcomes between those exposed and unexposed to racism, using regression models and inverse probability of treatment weights (IPTW) to account for the propensity score sampling process.

This study will add robust evidence on the causal links between experience of racism and subsequent health. The use of the NZHS as a baseline for a prospective study allows for the use of propensity score methods during the sampling phase as a novel approach to recruiting participants from the NZHS. This method allows for management of confounding at the sampling stage, while also reducing the need and cost of following up with all NZHS participants.

Peer Review reports

Differential access to the social determinants of health both creates and maintains unjust and avoidable health inequities [ 1 ]. In New Zealand, these inequities are largely patterned by ethnicity, particularly for Māori (the indigenous peoples) and Pacific peoples, and intertwined with ethnic distributions of socioeconomic status [ 2 , 3 ]. In models of health, racism is recognised as a key social determinant that underpins systemic ethnic health and social inequities, as is evident in New Zealand and elsewhere [ 4 , 5 ].

Racism can be understood as an organised system based on the categorisation and ranking of racial/ethnic groups into social hierarchies whereby ethnic groups are assigned differential value and have differential access to power, opportunities and resources, resulting in disadvantage for some groups and advantage for others [ 4 , 6 ]. Historical power relationships underpin systems of racism [ 7 ], which in New Zealand relates specifically to our colonial history and ongoing colonial processes [ 8 ].

Racism can be expressed at structural and individual levels, with several taxonomies describing different levels of racism. Institutionalised racism, for example, has been defined as, “the structures, policies, practices, and norms resulting in differential access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society by race[/ethnicity]” (p. 10) [ 6 ]. In contrast, personally-mediated racism has been defined as, “prejudice and discrimination, where prejudice is differential assumptions about the abilities, motives, and intents of others by ‘race[/ethnicity],’ and discrimination is differential actions towards others by ‘race[/ethnicity]’” (p. 10) [ 6 ].

The multifarious expressions of racism can affect health via several recognised direct and indirect pathways. Indirect pathways include differential access to societal resources and health determinants by race/ethnicity, as evidenced by long-standing ethnic inequities in income, education, employment and living standards in New Zealand, with subsequent impacts on living environments and exposure to risk and protective factors [ 4 , 6 , 9 , 10 ]. At the individual level, experience of racism can affect health directly through physical violence and stress pathways, with negative psychological and physiological impacts leading to subsequent mental and physical health consequences. In addition, racism influences healthcare via institutions and individual health providers, leading to ethnic inequities in access to and quality of care. For example, ethnic disparities in socioeconomic status can indirectly result in differential access to care, while health provider ethnic bias can influence the quality and outcomes of healthcare interactions [ 11 ].

There has been considerable recent growth in research supporting a direct link between experience of racism and health. A recent systematic review and meta-analysis summarised the evidence for direct links between self-reported personally-mediated racism and negative physical and mental health outcomes [ 12 ], with the strongest effect sizes demonstrated for mental health. Related work has also shown that experience of racial discrimination is associated with other adverse health outcomes and preclinical indicators of disease and health risk across various ethnic groups and countries, including in New Zealand [ 9 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Experience of racism has also been linked to a range of negative health care-related measures [ 16 ].

However, most studies have used cross-sectional designs: very few of the articles in a recent systematic review [ 12 ] used prospective or longitudinal designs ( n  = 30, 9% of total, including multiple articles from some studies), limiting our ability to draw strong causal conclusions as the direction of causality cannot be determined when racism exposure and health outcomes are measured at the same time. Additionally, cross-sectional studies may give biased estimates of the magnitude of association between experience of racism and health: for example, bias may occur if experience of ill health (outcome) increases reporting or perception of racism (exposure) [ 12 ]. This is suggested by meta-analyses where effect sizes for the association between racism and mental health were larger for cross-sectional compared to longitudinal studies [ 12 ]. Longitudinal research on the effects of racism has been particularly limited with respect to physical health outcomes and measures of healthcare access and quality [ 12 , 16 ]. Finally, existing prospective studies have largely been restricted to quite specific groups (e.g. adolescents, females, particular ethnic groups), with a limited number of studies undertaken at a national population level and few with sufficient data to explore the impact of racism on the health of Indigenous populations [ 12 ].

In New Zealand, reported experience of racism is substantially higher among Māori, Asian and Pacific ethnic groupings compared to European [ 3 , 17 ]. In our own research, we have examined cross-sectional links between reported experience of racism and various measures of adult health in New Zealand using data from the New Zealand Health Survey (NZHS), an annual national survey by the Ministry of Health including ~ 13,000 adults per annum [ 2 , 18 , 19 ]. In these studies [ 17 , 20 , 21 , 22 ] we have shown that both individual experience of racism (e.g. personal attacks or unfair treatment) and markers of structural racism (deprivation, other socioeconomic indicators) are independently associated with poor health (mental health, physical health, cardiovascular disease), health risks (smoking, hazardous alcohol consumption) and healthcare experience and use (screening, unmet need and negative patient experiences). Other New Zealand researchers have reported similar findings including studies among older Māori [ 23 ], adolescents [ 24 ], and for maternal and child health outcomes [ 25 ]. However, evidence from New Zealand prospective studies is still limited. The NZ Attitudes and Values study showed that, among Māori, experience of racism was negatively linked to subsequent wellbeing [ 26 ], and the Growing Up in New Zealand study reported that maternal experience of racism (measured antenatally) was linked to a higher risk of postnatal depression among Māori, Pacific and Asian women [ 27 ].

While empirical evidence of the links between racism and health is growing in New Zealand, it remains limited in several areas. There is consistent evidence from cross-sectional studies for the hypothesis that racism is associated with poorer health and health care. This study seeks to build on existing research to provide more robust causal evidence using a prospective design that helps to rule out reverse causality, in order to inform policy and healthcare interventions.

Theoretical and conceptual approaches

Addressing racism as a health determinant is intrinsically linked to addressing ethnic health inequities. In New Zealand, Māori health is of special relevance given Māori rights under the Treaty of Waitangi [ 28 ] and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People [ 29 ], and in recognition of the inequities for Māori across most major health indicators [ 28 ]. We recognise the direct significance of this project to Māori and understand racism in its broader sense as underpinning our colonial history with ongoing contemporary manifestations and effects [ 8 ]. As such, our work is informed by critical approaches to health research that are explicitly concerned with understanding inequity and transforming systems and structures to achieve the goal of health equity. This includes decolonising and transformative research principles [ 30 ] that influence our approach to the research question, data collection, analysis and interpretation of data, and translation of research findings. The team includes senior Māori researchers as well as advisors with experience in Māori health research and policy.

Aims and research questions

The overall aim is to examine the relationship between reported experience of racism and a range of subsequent health measures. The specific objectives are:

To determine whether experience of racism leads to poorer mental health and/or physical health.

To determine the impact of racism on subsequent use and experience of health services.

Study design

The proposed study uses a prospective cohort study design. Respondents from the 2016/17 New Zealand Health Survey [ 2 , 18 , 19 ] (NZHS) provide the source of the follow-up cohort sample and the NZHS provides baseline data. The follow-up survey will be conducted between one and two years after respondents completed the NZHS. Using the NZHS data as our sampling frame provides access to exposure status (experience of racism), along with data on a substantial number of covariates (including age, gender, and socioeconomic variables) allowing us to select an appropriate study cohort for answering our research questions. Participant follow-up will be conducted by a multi-modality survey (mail, web and telephone modalities).

This study explores the impact of racism on health in the general NZ adult population (which is the target population of the NZHS that forms the baseline of the study).

Participants

Participants were selected from adult NZHS 2016/17 interviewees ( n  = 13,573, aged 15+ at NZHS interview) who consented to re-contact for future research within a 2 year re-contact window (92% of adult respondents). The NZHS is a complex-sample design survey with an 80% response rate for adults [ 18 ] and oversampling of Māori, Pacific, and Asian populations (who experience higher levels of racism), which facilitates studying the impact of racism on subsequent health status. Participants who had consented to re-contact ( n  = 12,530) also needed to have contact details recorded and sufficient data on exposures/confounders to be included in the sampling frame ( n  = 11,775, 93.9% of consenting adults). All invited participants will be aged at least 16 at the time of follow-up, as at least one year will have passed since participation in the NZHS (where all participants were aged at least 15).

Exposure to racism was determined from the five previously validated NZHS items [ 31 ] asked of all adult respondents (see Table  1 ) about personal experience of racism across five domains (verbal and physical attack; unfair treatment in health, housing, or work). Response options for each question cover recent exposure (within the past 12 months), more historical exposure (> 12 months ago), or no exposure to racism.

Identification of exposed and unexposed individuals

Individuals were classified as exposed to racism if they answered “yes” to any question in Table  1 , in either timeframe (recent or historical: referred to as “ever” exposure). This allows for analysis restricted to the nested subset of individuals reporting recent exposure to racism (past 12 months) and those only reporting more historical exposure (> 12 months ago). The unexposed group comprised all individuals answering “No” to all five domains of experience of racism. We selected all exposed individuals for follow-up, along with a matched sample of unexposed individuals. Individuals missing exposure data were explicitly excluded.

Matching of exposed and unexposed individuals

To address potential confounding, we used propensity score matching methods in our sampling stage to remove the impact of major confounders (as measured in the NZHS) of the causal association between experience of racism and health outcomes. Propensity score methods are increasingly used in observational epidemiology as a robust method for dealing with confounding in the analysis stage [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ] and have more recently been considered as a useful approach for secondary sampling of participants from existing cohorts for subsequent follow up [ 37 ].

All exposed NZHS respondents will be invited into the follow-up survey. To find matched unexposed individuals, potential participants were stratified based on self-reported ethnicity (Māori, Pacific, Asian, European and Other; using prioritised ethnicity for individuals identifying with more than one grouping) [ 38 ] and then further matched for potential sociodemographic and socioeconomic confounders using propensity score methods [ 39 , 40 ]. Stratification by ethnicity reflects the differential prevalence of racism by ethnic group, and furthermore allows ethnically-stratified estimates of the impact of racism [ 22 ].

Propensity scores were modelled using logistic regression for “ever” exposure to racism based on major confounder variables of the association between racism and poor health (Table  2 ), with modelling stratified by ethnic group. Selection of appropriate confounders was based on past work using cross-sectional analysis of the 2011/12 NZHS (e.g. [ 21 , 22 ]) and the wider literature that informed the conceptual model for the project. Some additional variables were considered for inclusion in the matching process but were removed prior to finalisation (details in Table  2 ).

Within each ethnic group stratum, exposed individuals were matched with unexposed individuals (1:1 matching) based on propensity scores to make these two groups approximately exchangeable (confounders balanced between exposure groups). The matching process [ 41 ] used nearest neighbour matching as implemented in MatchIt [ 42 ] in R 3.4 (R Institute, Vienna, Austria). As the propensity score modelling is blind to participants’ future outcome status, the final propensity score models were refined using just the baseline NZHS data to achieve maximal balance of confounders between exposure groups, without risking bias to the subsequent primary causal analyses [ 39 ]. Balance between groups was then checked on all matching variables prior to finalisation of the sampling lists.

Questionnaire development

Development of the follow-up questionnaire was informed by a literature review and a conceptual model (Figs.  1 and 2 ) of the potential pathways from racism to health outcomes (Fig.  1 ) and health service utilisation (Fig.  2 ) [ 4 , 10 , 16 , 43 , 44 ]. The literature review focussed on longitudinal studies of racism and health among adolescents and adults that included health or health service outcomes. The literature review covered longitudinal studies post-dating the 2015 systematic review by Paradies et al. [ 12 ], using similar search terms for papers between 2013 and 2017 indexed in Medline and PubMed databases, alongside additional studies from systematic reviews [ 12 , 16 ].

figure 1

Potential pathways between racism and health outcomes. Direct pathway: Main arrow represents the direct biopsychosocial and trauma pathways between experience of racial discrimination (Time 1) and negative health outcomes (Time 2) Indirect pathways: Racial discrimination (Time 1) can impact negatively on health outcomes (Time 2) via healthcare pathways (e.g. less engagement, unmet need). Racial discrimination (Time 1) can impact negatively on physical health outcomes (Time 2) via mental health pathways

figure 2

Potential pathways between racism and healthcare utilisation outcomes. Main pathway: Main arrow represents the pathway between experience of racial discrimination (Time 1) and negative healthcare measures (Time 2), via negative perceptions and expectations of healthcare (providers, organisations, systems) and future engagement. Secondary pathway: Racial discrimination (T1) can impact negatively on healthcare (Time 2) via negative impacts on health increasing healthcare need

We used several criteria for considering and prioritising variables for the questionnaire. The conceptual model also informed prioritisation of variables for the questionnaire. For outcome measures, these included: alignment with study aims and objectives; existing evidence of a relationship between racism and outcome; New Zealand evidence of ethnic inequities in outcome; previous cross-sectional relationships between racism and outcome in New Zealand data; availability of baseline measures (for health outcomes); plausibility of health effects manifesting within a 1–2 year follow-up period; and data quality (e.g. validated measures, low missing data, questions suitable for multimodal administration). Mediators and confounders were considered for variables not available in the baseline NZHS survey, as was recent experience of racism (following the NZHS interview) to provide additional measurement of exposure to recent racism. A final consideration for prioritising items for inclusion was keeping the length of the questionnaire short in order to maximise response rates (while being able to fully address the study aims). The questionnaire was extensively discussed by the research team and reviewed by the study advisors prior to finalisation.

Table  3 summarises the outcome measures by topic domain and original source (with references). The final questionnaire content can be found in the Additional file  1 , and includes: health outcome measures of mental and physical health (using SF12-v2 and K10 scales); health service measures (unmet need, satisfaction with usual medical centre, experiences with general practitioners); experience of racism in the last 12 months (adapted from items in the NZHS); and variables required to restrict data (e.g. having a usual medical centre, type of centre, having a General Practitioner [GP] visit in the last 12 months) or potential confounder and mediator variables not available at baseline (e.g. number of GP visits).

Recruitment and data collection

Recruitment is currently underway. The sampling phase provided a list of potential participants for invitation, and recruitment for the follow-up survey uses the contact details from the NZHS interview (physical address, mobile/landline telephone, and email address if available). Recruitment will take place over three tranches to (1) manage fieldwork capacity and (2) allow tracking of response rates and adaptation of contact strategies if recruitment is sub-optimal.

To maximise response rates, we chose to use a multi-modal survey [ 45 ]. Participants are invited to respond by a paper questionnaire included with the initial invitation letter (questionnaire returned by pre-paid post), by self-completed online questionnaire, or by computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI, on mobile or landline.) A pen is included in the study invitation to improve initial engagement with the paper-based survey [ 46 ]. Participants completing the survey are offered a NZ$20 gift card to recognise their participation. The contact information contains instructions for opting out of the study.

Those participants not responding online or by post receive a reminder postcard mailed out two weeks after the initial letter, containing a link to the web survey and a note that the participant will be contacted by telephone in two weeks’ time.

Two weeks after the reminder postcard (four weeks post-invitation) remaining non-respondents are contacted using CATI processes. For those with mobile phone numbers or email addresses, a text (SMS) or email reminder is sent two days before the telephone contact phase. Once contact is made by telephone, the interviewer asks the participant to complete the survey over the telephone at that time or organises a subsequent appointment (interview duration approximately 15 min). Interviewers make up to seven telephone contact attempts for each participant, using all recorded telephone numbers. Respondents who decline to complete the full interview at telephone follow-up are asked to consider answering two priority questions (self-rated health and any unmet need for healthcare in the last 12 months: questions 1 and 8 in Table  3 and Additional file 1 ).

Past surveys conducted in NZ have frequently noted lower response rates and hence under-representation of Māori [ 47 , 48 ]. Drawing on Kaupapa Māori research principles, we are explicitly aiming for equitable response rates of Māori to ensure maximum power for ethnically stratified analysis. This involves providing culturally appropriate invitations and interviewers for participants, and actively monitoring response rates by ethnicity during data collection to allow longer and more frequent follow-up of Māori, Pacific and Asian participants if required [ 48 , 49 ]. The use of a multi-modal survey is also expected to minimise recruitment problems inherent to any single modality (e.g. lower phone ownership or internet access in some ethnic groups).

We have contracted an external research company to co-ordinate recruitment and data collection fieldwork under our supervision (covering all contact processes described here), which follows recruitment and data management protocols set by our research team.

Statistical analysis

Propensity score methods for the sampling stage are described above: this section focuses on causal analyses for health outcomes in the achieved sample. The sampling frame selects participants based on “ever” experience of racism, which is our exposure definition.

All analyses will account for both the complex survey sampling frame (weights, strata and clusters from the NZHS) and the secondary sampling phase (selection based on propensity scores). Complex survey data will be handled using software to account for these designs (e.g. survey package [ 50 ] in R); propensity scores will be handled in the main analysis by using inverse probability of treatment weights (IPTW) combined with the sampling weights [ 51 ].

Linear regression methods will be used to compare change in continuous outcome measures (e.g. K10 score) by estimating mean score at follow-up, adjusted for baseline. Analysis of dichotomous categorical outcomes (e.g. self-rated health) will use logistic regression methods, again adjusted for baseline (for health outcomes). We will conduct analyses stratified by ethnic group to explore whether the impact of racism differs by ethnic group. Models will adjust for confounders included in creating the propensity scores (doubly-robust estimation) to address residual confounding not fully covered by the propensity score approach [ 52 ]. Analysis for other outcomes will use similar methods.

As we hypothesise that some outcomes (e.g. self-reported mental distress) will be more strongly influenced by recent experience of racism, we will also examine our main outcomes restricted to those only reporting historical (more than 12 months ago) or recent (last 12 months) racism at baseline. These historical and recent experience groups (and corresponding unexposed individuals) form nested sub-groups of the total cohort, and so analysis will follow the same framework outlined above. Experience of racism in the last 12 months (measured at follow-up) will be examined in cross-sectional analyses and in combination with baseline measures of racism to create a measure to examine the cumulative impact of racism on outcomes.

Sensitivity analyses

While the sampling invitation lists are based on matched samples, we have no control about specific individuals choosing to participate in the follow-up survey, and so the original matching is unlikely to be maintained in the achieved sample. We will conduct sensitivity analyses using re-matched data (based on propensity scores for those participating in follow-up) to allow for re-calibration of exposed and unexposed groups in the achieved sample.

To consider potential for bias due to non-response in our follow-up sample, we will compare NZHS 2016/17 cross-sectional data for responders and non-responders on baseline sociodemographic, socioeconomic, and baseline health variables.

Sample size

Based on NZHS 2011/12 responses, we anticipated a total pool of 2100 potential participants with “ever” experience of racism, with approximately 1100 expected to be Māori/Pacific/Asian ethnicity, and 10,000 with no report of racism (at least 2 unexposed per exposed individual in each ethnic group).

For the main analyses (based on “ever” experience of racism) we assumed a conservative follow-up rate of 40%, giving a final sample size of at least 840 exposed individuals. This response rate includes re-contact and agreement to participate, based on past experience recruiting NZHS participants for other studies and the relative length of the current survey questionnaire.

Initial projections (based on NZHS2011/12 data) indicated sufficient numbers of unexposed individuals for 1:1 matching based on ethnicity and propensity scores. This gives a feasible total sample size of n  = 1680, providing substantial power for the K10 mental health outcome (standard deviation = 6.5: > 95% power to detect difference in change of 2 units of K10 between groups.) For the second main health outcome (change in self-rated health), this sample size will have > 85% power for a difference between 8% of those exposed to racism having worse self-reported health at follow-up (relative to baseline) compared to 5% of unexposed individuals.

For analyses of effects stratified by ethnicity, we expect > 95% power for Māori participants ( n  = 280 each exposed and unexposed) for the K10 outcome (assumptions as above); change in self-rated health will have 80% power for a difference between 12% of exposed individuals having worse self-reported health at follow-up (relative to baseline) compared to 5% of unexposed individuals. Stratified estimates for Pacific and Asian groups will have poorer precision, but should still provide valid comparisons.

Ethical approval and consent to participate

The study involves recruiting participants who have already completed the NZHS interview (including questions on racial discrimination) The NZHS as conducted by the Ministry of Health has its own ethical approval (MEC/10/10/103) and participants are only invited onto the present study if they explicitly consented (at the time of completing the NZHS) to re-contact for future health research. The current study was reviewed and approved by the University of Otago’s Human Ethics (Health) Committee prior to commencement of fieldwork (reference: H17/094). Participants provided informed consent to participate at the time of completing the follow-up survey depending on response modality: implicitly through completion and return of the paper survey which stated “By completing this survey, you indicate that you understand the research and are willing to participate” (see Additional file 1 : a separate written consent document was not required by the ethics committee); in the online survey by responding “yes” to a similarly worded question that they understood the study and agreed to take part (recorded as part of data collection, and participation could not continue unless ticked), or by verbal consent in a similar initial question in the telephone interview (since written consent could not be collected in this setting). These consent methods were approved by the reviewing Ethics committee [ 53 ]. Ethical approval for the study included using the same consent processes for those participants aged 16 to 18 as for older participants.

This study will contribute robust evidence to the limited national and international literature from prospective studies on the causal links between experience of racism and subsequent health. The use of the NZHS as the baseline for the prospective study capitalises on the inclusion of racism questions in that survey to provide a unique and important opportunity to build on and substantially strengthen the current evidence base for the impact of racism on health using data spanning the entire New Zealand adult population. In addition, our use of propensity scores in the sampling phase is a novel approach to prospective recruitment of participants from the NZHS. This approach should manage confounding while reducing the need (and cost) of following up all NZHS participants, without compromising the internal validity of the results. The novel methods developed for using the NZHS as the base for a prospective cohort study will have wider application to other health priority areas. One general limitation of this approach is that baseline data (for both propensity score development and baseline health measures) is limited to the data captured in the existing larger survey. We anticipate that this study will assist in prioritising racism as a health determinant and inform the development of anti-racism interventions in health service delivery and policy making.

Current stage of research

Funding for this project began October 1st 2017. The first set of respondent invitations was mailed out on July 12th 2018; fieldwork for the final tranche of invitations was underway at the time of submission and is expected to be completed by 31 December 2018. Analysis and reporting will take place in mid-to-late 2019.

Abbreviations

Computer Assisted Telephone Interview

General Practitioner

General Social Survey

Index of Multiple Deprivation

Inverse Probability of Treatment Weights

  • New Zealand

New Zealand Deprivation Index

New Zealand Health Survey

12/36-Item Short Form Survey

short message service

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the assistance of the Ministry of Health’s New Zealand Health Survey Team for facilitating access to the NZHS data and respondent lists, and for help with constructing the questionnaire (including providing the Helpline contact template).

We would also like to acknowledge the expertise and input of our project advisory team: Natalie Talamaivao (Senior Advisor, Māori Health Research, Ministry of Health), Associate Professor Bridget Robson (Director, Eru Pōmare Māori Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Wellington), and Dr. Sarah-Jane Paine (Senior Research Fellow, University of Auckland and University of Otago, Wellington). Thanks also to Ms. Ruruhira Rameka (Eru Pōmare Māori Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Wellington) for providing administrative support. Research New Zealand was contracted to undertake the data collection and other fieldwork for the follow-up survey.

This project was funded by the Health Research Council of New Zealand (HRC 17–066). The funding body approved the study but has no further role in the study design or outputs from the study.

Availability of data and materials

Data from the follow-up study is not available to other researchers as participants did not provide their consent for data sharing. The NZHS 2016/17 data used as the baseline for the study described in this protocol is available to approved researchers subject to the New Zealand Ministry of Health’s Survey Microdata Access agreement https://www.health.govt.nz/nz-health-statistics/national-collections-and-surveys/surveys/access-survey-microdata .

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Contributions

JS and RH initiated the project and are co-principal investigators of the study, and jointly led writing of the grant application and this protocol paper. JS designed the sampling plan, led the development of the contact protocol, led the development of the statistical analysis plan, contributed to revising the questionnaire, and is guarantor of the paper. RH designed the questionnaire, contributed to development of the sampling and contact protocol, and co-led the statistical analysis plan. DC led the conceptual plan with support from RH. AW and RE contributed to the contact protocol. DC, AW and RE all contributed to writing the grant application, revising the questionnaire and sampling plans, and revising the draft protocol paper. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to James Stanley .

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Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The follow-up study protocol and questionnaire were approved by the University of Otago’s Human Ethics (Health) Committee prior to commencement of fieldwork (reference: H17/094). The NZHS has its own ethical approval as granted to the New Zealand Ministry of Health (NZ Multi-Region Ethics Committee, MEC/10/10/103), and consent for re-contact was gained from participants at the time of their NZHS interview. Participants provided informed consented to participate at the time of completing the follow-up survey: implicitly through completion and return of the paper survey which stated “By completing this survey, you indicate that you understand the research and are willing to participate”; in the online survey by responding “yes” to a similarly worded question that they understood the study and agreed to take part, or by verbal consent in a similar initial question in the telephone interview.

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Not applicable.

Competing interests

JS, RH, DC, AW, and RE report funding from the Health Research Council of New Zealand to complete this work. JS and RH report personal fees from the Health Research Council of New Zealand for service as external members on committees (neither are employees of the HRC), outside the scope of the current work.

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Stanley, J., Harris, R., Cormack, D. et al. The impact of racism on the future health of adults: protocol for a prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health 19 , 346 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6664-x

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120 Racism Essay Topics You Should Check First

The racist system is very relevant in modern Society. Despite economic, technical, and social progress, many countries are still on the verge of social and racial intolerance. The same negative influences are relevant to future generations if they do not reconsider their point of view. That is why students need to choose racism essay topics that will reveal the essence of the problem and get a good grade.

The choice of social justice research topics is also relevant because modern society is still not ready to completely abandon prejudice towards people. Your research work should show the absurdity of such tendencies and motivate you to reject social inequality completely. You should choose exactly those social problem topics that will reflect your personal preferences and will be relevant to the society you live in. It will also help you find a lot of social studies that will help you add some facts to your research paper.

But this is not the whole list of requirements that you need to fulfill. The racism topics for the research paper require careful research and preparation of a key preliminary list with abstracts and important historical references. You need to confirm each statement not only with your personal views but also with real facts and scientific evidence.

For example, you can justify racism in the context of the psychological rejection of people who differ from certain social groups. You can also analyze prejudice and discrimination research paper topics for important information that can bring you the highest possible score. So, let's check the racism research topics.

Racism Essay Topics: History

When you select such research topics about racism, you will be able to examine the reasons for intolerance towards people of different skin colors through historical examples. For example, you can analyze racial intolerance based on a specific country or time period. This will help to understand the reasons for racism and intolerance towards people of other orientations.

  • The policy of racism of colonists against aborigines in Australia.
  • Racism in the United States and its causes.
  • American Mexican racism in the 20th Century.
  • Historical research on racism.
  • Racial prejudice against workers in the 1960s.
  • Harlem as a story of fighting racism.
  • The key figures in the fight for equal rights.
  • Racism as a lack of social progress.
  • The Ku Klux Klan and its history.
  • The history of apartheid in the South African republic.
  • Martin Luther King as black rights fighter.
  • The major historical figures against racism.
  • The chronology of the emergence of racism in Afghanistan.
  • The main nuances of modern racism.
  • Historical facts that support racism in ancient Egypt.

Argumentative Racism Paper Topics

When choosing research topics about racism like this, you need to be clear about how to argue your point of view or bring a specific example based on your chosen country or time period. For example, you can tell why racism is so relevant in modern society and the main motives it carries to everyone.

  • The reason for the emergence of racism inclinations.
  • The aspects of the immorality of racism.
  • How relevant is the issue of racism now?
  • Modern movements in the struggle for the rights of different races.
  • Racism as a manifestation of social intolerance.
  • When will humanity be able to defeat racism?
  • Examples of racism in everyday life.
  • Is religious racism possible in our time?
  • The benefits of racism in the context of political repression.
  • The main reasons for the irrationality of racism.
  • Why do women experience prejudice from men?
  • Is it possible to get rid of racism through aggression?
  • What are the main factors motivating racists?
  • How is Islam perceived in the context of racism?
  • What are the current problems of different races and nationalities?

Analytical Racism Paper Topics

Analytical information is always relevant when you pick up essay topics on racism. This will allow you to rely solely on real facts and draw parallels between different countries and specific cases. All of this will help you convey your research article's main message and explain the reasons for this or that fact of racial intolerance.

  • What are the main levers to reduce racism in the United States?
  • The main racial prejudices in the political environment.
  • Does racial discrimination affect language issues?
  • Why interracial marriage is unacceptable in modern society.
  • The peculiarities of racial discrimination against social workers.
  • What myths about ethnic groups exist in the United States?
  • Can Islamophobia be classified as racism?
  • The relationship between black discrimination and racism.
  • How does racism affect the health care system?
  • How is racism reflected in modern cinema?
  • Can the problem of racism be solved within the next 20 years?
  • Basic principles of overcoming racism in society.
  • How can you compare the social level and racism in society?
  • The nuances of modern racism and the reasons for its occurrence.

Racism Essay Topics: Definitions

Such social issue paper topics are always relevant in modern society. Racism is a reality that is still with us. You can give definitions of various forms and manifestations of racial intolerance and explain the reasons for such occurrence, even in modern society. It will be relevant in the context of your college or university studies and also allow you to get high grades.

  • Classification of types of racism in the United States.
  • How does cultural identity influence racist issues?
  • Is there institutional racism, and what are the reasons for it?
  • Can personality theory explain the premise of racism?
  • Racial-free opportunities in times of racism?
  • Interpolated racism as a new round of social inequality.
  • How does the theory of authoritarian prejudice work?
  • The concept of cultural racism in modern society.
  • What are pluralism and assimilation?
  • Does segregation affect personality perception?

Racism in the USA

When you choose racial profiling essay topics, you should think about the USA. This country has a huge number of freedoms and rights, which also goes through a stage of getting rid of racism inclinations. Towards democracy and racism cannot coexist in harmony. Therefore, society must get rid of all negative aspects. You can tell about the United States' history and how this country went through the millstones of racial hatred.

  • The main causes of racism in the United States.
  • Why were the early settlers racist?
  • Why weren't blacks the only slaves on the American Continent?
  • The reasons for the introduction of the slave system in the United States?
  • The main nuances that influenced the abolition of slavery in the United States.
  • Could the escalation of conflicts be repeated on the basis of racism?
  • How is the US fighting racism around the world?
  • Major trends for overcoming racism in pop culture?
  • How is society divided on the basis of racism?
  • Can racism be permanently removed from America?

Racism Topic Ideas: Literature, Art, and Movies

When choosing racism research paper topics, you should remember that art, literature, and cinema also have many examples of negative attitudes towards people of different skin colors. For example, you can take any old film from the thirties that will clearly show the attitude of people towards other nationalities and races. This will be able to show progress and general revolutionary movements in modern society more clearly.

  • The influence of the 1930s cinema on contemporary racism in America.
  • Why do many Disney cartoons of the late forties have racial prejudices?
  • Problems of white nationalism in the film The Invisible Man.
  • The influence of modern cinema on the elimination of racism
  • Modern literature as a factor in the fight against racial segregation.
  • A list of the most influential films of the past century that have influenced the destruction of racism.
  • Is there a racial bias in cinema today?
  • How can art fight against racism?
  • Modern filmmakers as flagships of the racial revolution.
  • Analysis of auteur cinema as the best example of the fight against racism.

Age Discrimination

The age discrimination topics research paper is also relevant to many people in the United States and around the world. Students can take as a basis certain cases of age intolerance or historical facts on the basis of which you can create your own paperwork. This is a very broad topic that includes many key stages of social intolerance that need to be discussed in society for the complete elimination of negative manifestations.

  • The basic definition of age discrimination.
  • The impact of age discrimination on employment.
  • Can an older person experience age discrimination in health care?
  • How does age discrimination affect the lives of today's Americans?
  • Problems of age discrimination as a factor of intolerance in society.
  • The main aspects of age discrimination and its impact on adolescents.
  • Methods of combating age discrimination.
  • Modern cinema as proof of the fight against age discrimination.
  • Older people in politics and the absence of age discrimination in advanced countries.
  • How can modern society avoid age discrimination?

Homophobia is a sad fact in world history. Traditional society is intolerant of manifestations of sexual deviations and other views. That is why such a topic may not only be relevant but will bring you high marks. Your job is to get facts and provide expert content with links to authoritative sources.

  • Psychological causes of homophobia.
  • How does homophobia affect the slowdown in the development of modern states?
  • Homophobia as the equivalent of racism in the modern world.
  • How society can get rid of homophobia.
  • Why does sexual difference affect attitudes towards people?
  • Social prejudice as a major factor in homophobia.
  • Teenage bullying is based on homophobia.
  • Nuances of homophobia as the highest manifestation of intolerance.
  • Can homophobia ruin the life of the average person?
  • The most tolerant countries for non-traditional sexual orientation.
  • Why is homophobia so common?
  • Reasons for psychological intolerance towards non-traditional sexual orientations.
  • The main factors in the fight against homophobia.

General Topic About Racism

You can also choose general racial discrimination topics that do not have a specific focus and are designed to reveal the whole problem in its entirety. Such a broad aspect will allow you not to look for any specific research and provide general facts about the various problems of racial discrimination and the reasons for this.

  • Definition of racism and racial segregation.
  • The main reasons for apartheid in the South Africa.
  • Why do people of color light negative B in their direction in developing countries?
  • Nuances of racism in the context of modern state politics.
  • Employment problems for people of color.
  • The nuances of social policy and the fight against racism.
  • How can you defeat racism around the world?
  • Racism as a global disaster in modern society.
  • Modern manifestations of racism in the social environment.
  • The general trend towards a decrease in intolerance towards other races.
  • Features of interaction between people of different races and nationalities.
  • The main nuances of the fight against racism.
  • Factors influencing racial intolerance.

Other Topic About Racism

You can also choose argumentative essay topics on racism, as this will keep you from delving into specific narrow specifics. It may also be interesting for you and bring you a good assessment. If tomorrow you are not on those important topics, you can give several pieces of evidence that will confirm your point of view. Buy a research paper will be especially relevant if you give real examples from life or literature relevant to modern society.

  • Racism & intercultural communication barriers.
  • The impact of Jim Crow laws on African Americans.
  • Racial bullying in schools.
  • Incidents in the life of slave girls in Uganda.
  • The black lives matter movement.
  • Race and ethnicity problems.
  • The illegal immigration.
  • Joseph Stieglitz and his research papers.
  • Contemporary problems of the black population.
  • Worldwide star collaborations against racism.

How to Write a Research Paper on Racism?

The preparation of a research paper on racism does not differ from other formats in the Technical Plan. You still have to adhere to certain formatting, the structure of your research, and general guidelines for presenting facts and certain statistics. You should also choose a relevant topic that will be important in the context of modern society or historical moments.

Your paper should follow a clear structure, have links to reliable sources, and confirmed statistical information only then you will be able to operate with facts and get high marks. Nevertheless, if you are still undecided about which topic you should choose, you can use our services.

We have a team of professionals who know many aspects of education and are ready to open the topic of racism for your research. All you need is to pick race and ethnic relations essay topics or any other theme. We will prepare expert material which will allow you to get high marks.

The Inspiration List:

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  • Racism – News, Research and Analysis
  • Physiological Responses to Racism and Discrimination
  • Racism, discrimination and hypertension
  • Racism and Health
  • Dimensions of Racism
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Unpacking Race and Racism | A Resource Guide: Research Topic Ideas

  • Racial Identity
  • Gender & Race
  • Race Relations
  • Implicit Bias
  • Racism in America
  • Racism Around the World
  • Anti-Racism
  • Black Lives Matter
  • Hispanic/Latinx Americans
  • Asian Pacific Islander Desi Americans
  • SWANA Peoples
  • American Indians/Native Americans/Indigenous People
  • Immigrants/Migrants/Refugees
  • Biracial/Multiracial People
  • Racism & Religions
  • Revisionist History
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Research Topic Ideas

  • Finding Books, eBooks, and Articles
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Choosing a Research Topic

When choosing a research topic related to the subject of race or racism, it's helpful to start out by thinking of specifics. Either specific instances or time periods of racism throughout history (slavery, apartheid, Japanese internment, etc.) or more modern day examples such as the disproportionate incarceration of people of color or use of deadly force against people of color by police officers. Next, think of a question regarding this specific instance that you would like to find more information about or an answer to. Browse the books and articles in this guide for inspiration or take a look at the short list below of possible research topic ideas, but the possibilities of topics are endless.

  • Assimilation ability and historical versus modern racism. Immigrant groups, such as Irish or Italian, were historically discriminated against and are accepted today. Groups without a "white" appearance, however, still face discrimination.
  • The idea of "ideal immigrants." 
  • The recent resurgence of racism as a whole, especially immigrant discrimination and Islamophobia.
  • The differences and similarities between racism in America and in the rest of the world.
  • Different forms of racism and their varying impacts.
  • Racism as a public health crisis.
  • The trauma of racism causing mental health issues.
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Richard J. Contrada

Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

Racism is a stressor that contributes to racial/ethnic disparities in mental and physical health and to variations in these outcomes within racial and ethnic minority groups. The aim of this paper is to identify and discuss key issues in the study of individual-level strategies for coping with interpersonal racism. We begin with a discussion of the ways in which racism acts as a stressor and requires the mobilization of coping resources. Next, we examine available models for describing and conceptualizing strategies for coping with racism. Third, we discuss three major forms of coping: racial identity development, social support seeking and anger suppression and expression. We examine empirical support for the role of these coping strategies in buffering the impact of racism on specific health-related outcomes, including mental health (i.e., specifically, self-reported psychological distress and depressive symptoms), self-reported physical health, resting blood pressure levels, and cardiovascular reactivity to stressors. Careful examination of the effectiveness of individual-level coping strategies can guide future interventions on both the individual and community levels.

Racism is a stressor that contributes to racial/ethnic disparities in mental and physical health and to variations in health outcomes within racial and ethnic minority groups ( Anderson 1989 ; Clark et al. 1999 ; Mays et al. 2007 ; Paradies 2006 ; Williams and Williams-Morris 2000 ). Racism, in particular, self-reported ethnic or racial discrimination is a highly prevalent phenomenon. Members of most ethnic or racial minority groups report exposure over the course of their lifetime, and recent research indicates that episodes of ethnicity-related maltreatment occur on a weekly basis for some groups (Brondolo et al. 2009). The evidence points consistently to a relationship between self-reported racism and mental health impairments, specifically negative mood and depressive symptoms ( Brondolo et al. 2008 ; Kessler Mickelson and Williams 1999 ; Paradies 2006 ). Some evidence has linked self-reported racism to hypertension and a more consistent body of evidence has linked racism to risk factors for hypertension and/or coronary heart disease ( Brondolo et al. 2003 , 2008 ; Harrell et al. 2003 ; Lewis et al. 2006 ; Peters 2004 ; Steffen and Bowden 2006 ). Racism has also been linked to several other health conditions ( Paradies 2006 ), and to perceived health, which is itself a predictor of all-cause mortality ( Borrell et al. 2007 ; Jackson et al. 1996 ; Schulz et al. 2006 ).

Since racism persists within the US, it is critical to identify the strategies individuals use to cope with this stressor and to evaluate the effectiveness of these strategies. As noted by Fischer & Shaw (1999) , in 1996 the National Advisory Mental Health Council highlighted the importance of investigating individual-level factors that buffer the health effects of discrimination ( Fischer and Shaw 1999 ). Although the knowledge base has grown since 1996, there is an ongoing need for greater understanding of the ways in which individuals can mitigate the health risks associated with racial/ethnic discrimination.

The aim of this paper is to identify and discuss key issues in the study of individual-level strategies for coping with interpersonal racism. It is important to note that we do not intend this review to communicate the idea that the burden of coping with racism should be placed on the shoulders of targeted individuals alone. Eliminating racism and the effects of racism on health will require interventions at all levels: from the individual to the family, community, and nation. Nonetheless, careful examination of the effectiveness of individual-level coping strategies is needed to guide future interventions at both the individual and other levels.

We begin with a discussion of the ways in which racism acts as a stressor and requires the mobilization of coping resources. Next, we examine available models for describing and conceptualizing strategies for coping with racism. Third, we discuss three major approaches to coping: racial identity development, social support seeking, and anger suppression and expression. These coping approaches have received sufficient research attention to permit a systematic review of evidence regarding their effectiveness for both mental and physical health outcomes. In addition, these coping approaches are intuitively plausible as potential buffers of the effects of racism on health, and if shown to be effective, would lend themselves to skills and information-based intervention approaches. We examine empirical support for the role of these coping approaches in buffering the impact of racism on mental health-related outcomes (i.e., specifically, self-reported psychological distress and depressive symptoms), self-reported physical health, resting blood pressure levels, and cardiovascular reactivity to stressors. These outcomes were chosen because they have been among those most consistently identified as correlates of racism ( Paradies 2006 ). Finally, we discuss theoretical and methodological issues that are important to consider when conducting and evaluating research on strategies for coping with racism. Although much of the research on coping with racism has focused on African American samples, we have included the available data on other groups, including individuals of Asian and Latino(a) descent as well.

Definitions

Clark et al. (1999 , p. 805) define racism as “the beliefs, attitudes, institutional arrangements, and acts that tend to denigrate individuals or groups because of phenotypic characteristics or ethnic group affiliation”. Contrada and others (2000, 2001) use the more general term ethnic discrimination to refer to unfair treatment received because of one’s ethnicity, where “ethnicity” refers to various grouping of individuals based on race or culture of origin. We consider racism a special form of social ostracism in which phenotypic or cultural characteristics are used to assign individuals to an outcast status, rendering them targets of social exclusion, harassment, and unfair treatment.

Racism exists at multiple levels, including interpersonal, environmental, institutional, and cultural ( Harrell 2000 ; Jones 1997 , 2000 ; Krieger 1999 ). However, the bulk of empirical research on coping with racism focuses on strategies for coping with interpersonal racism. Interpersonal racism has been defined by Krieger as “directly perceived discriminatory interactions between individuals whether in their institutional roles or as public and private individuals” ( Krieger 1999 , p. 301). Racism may have deleterious effects even when the target does not consciously perceive the maltreatment or attribute it to racism. However, this review considers the effectiveness of individual-level coping strategies employed to address episodes of racism that are both directly experienced and perceived. This focus on an interpersonal approach to examining racism is consistent with much recent work by Smith and colleagues examining the health effects of other psychosocial stressors (e.g., poverty) within an interpersonal context (see, for example, Gallo et al. 2006 ; Ruiz et al. 2006 ; Smith et al. 2003 ).

Types of ethnicity-related maltreatment

Racism/ethnic discrimination can encompass a wide range of acts including social exclusion, workplace discrimination, stigmatization, and physical threat and harassment ( Brondolo et al. 2005a ; Contrada et al. 2001 ). Social exclusion includes a variety of different interactions in which individuals are excluded from social interactions, rejected, or ignored because of their ethnicity or race. Stigmatization can include both verbal and non-verbal behavior directed at the targeted individual that communicates a message that demeans the targeted person (e.g., communicates the idea that the targeted individual must be lazy or stupid because he or she belongs to a particular racial or ethnic group). Workplace discrimination includes acts directed at individuals of a particular race or ethnicity that range from the expression of lowered expectations to a refusal to promote or hire. Threat and harassment can include potential or actual damage to an individual or his or her family or property because of ethnicity or race. Any of these discriminatory acts can be overt, such that the racial bias is made explicit (e.g., when accompanied by racial slurs), or the acts can be covert such that racial bias may not be directly stated but is implicit in the communication ( Taylor and Grundy 1996 ).

Racism as a stressor

A number of conceptual models, including those which consider racism within stress and coping frameworks, have described the ways that racism may confer risk for health impairment ( Anderson et al. 1989 ; Clark et al. 1999 ; Harrell et al. 1998 ; Krieger 1999 ; Mays et al. 2007 ; Outlaw 1993 ; Williams et al. 2003 ). In general, each model emphasizes the need to consider the acute effects of individual incidents of ethnicity-related maltreatment, as well as factors that sustain the damaging effects of these events. They highlight the importance of considering racism as a unique stressor, and as a factor that may interact with other potential race and non-race-related stressors, including low socioeconomic status and neighborhood crime. Racism itself and the environmental conditions associated with racism (e.g., neighborhood segregation) limit access to coping resources. The cumulative effects of acute and sustained stress exposure, combined with limited coping resources are likely to cause perturbations in neuroendocrine and autonomic systems that respond to acute stressors and that maintain or re-establish physiological homeostasis ( Gallo and Matthews 2003 ; McEwen and Lasley 2003 , 2007 ).

From the perspective of the targeted individual, racism is a complex stressor, requiring a range of different coping resources to manage both practical and emotional aspect of the stressor. Features of the racist incident, as well as the corresponding coping demands, may vary depending upon the physical, social, and temporal context of exposure. Targets must cope with the substance of racism, such as interpersonal conflict, blocked opportunities, and social exclusion. They must also manage the emotional consequences, including painful feelings of anger, nervousness, sadness, and hopelessness, and their physiological correlates. Targets may also need to manage their concerns about short and long term effects of racism on other members of their group, including their friends and family members. Indirect effects of racism (e.g., poverty, environmental toxin exposure, changes in family structure) may require additional coping efforts ( Mays et al. 1996 ). A theme that may cut across and link many or even most of the coping tasks posed by racism is the management of damage to self-concept and social identity ( Mellor 2004 ).

Episodes of ethnicity or race-based maltreatment can occur in a number of different venues. The effectiveness of the coping response may vary depending on the context in which the maltreatment occurs. Factors that may influence the choice and effectiveness of a coping strategy include variations in the intensity and nature of the threat, the perceived degree of intentionality of the perpetrator, the potential consequences of the act and of the coping response, the availability of resources to assist the target, and perceptions of the need to repeatedly muster different coping resources and the appraisal of one’s ability to do so ( Richeson and Shelton 2007 ; Scott 2004 ; Scott and House 2005 ; Swim et al. 2003 ).

Different types of coping may be needed at different points in time: in anticipation of potential exposure to ethnicity-related maltreatment, at the time of exposure, following the episode, and when considering longer term implications of persistent or recurring exposure. The strategies that are effective for quickly terminating a specific episode of maltreatment are not necessarily the same as those needed to manage the possibility of longer term exposure. A variety of coping strategies may be needed at each point.

Consequently, one of the most serious challenges facing minority group members is the need to develop a broad range of racism-related coping responses to permit them to respond to different types of situations and to adjust the response depending on factors that might influence the effectiveness of any particular coping strategy. Targets must also develop the cognitive flexibility to implement an appropriate and effective strategy in each of the wide range of situations in which they may be exposed to discrimination, judge the relative costs and benefits of these strategies, and deploy them as needed over prolonged periods of time. This level of coping flexibility is beneficial, but difficult to achieve ( Cheng 2003 ). The perception that one’s coping capacity is not adequate to meet the demands increases the likelihood that ethnicity-related maltreatment will be experienced as a chronic stressor.

Coping with racism: models and measures

There are a number of early models ( Allport 1954 ; Harrell 1979 ) of the different strategies individuals used to respond to racism that have been reviewed in Mellor (2004) . Some of the difficulties with these models are a function of more general problems with models of coping that have been well reviewed elsewhere ( Skinner et al. 2003 ). Other concerns are more specific to the difficulties of developing models for coping with racism.

Most models fail to explicitly incorporate strategies designed to manage the interpersonal conflict associated with ethnicity-related maltreatment as well as with its emotional sequelae. They do not always include strategies both for coping with an acute event (i.e., responding to the perpetrator during episodes of ethnicity-related maltreatment) and for coping with the awareness that race-related maltreatment is likely to be an ongoing stressor. Additionally, it can also be difficult to determine if the coping strategies included in the models are intended to address racism specifically or the various consequences of discrimination, such as unemployment, denial of a job promotion, or poverty.

More recent work has utilized dimensions of coping that are more explicitly tied to theories of stress and coping, including problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, approach versus avoidance coping, and social support ( Danoff-Burg et al. 2004 ; Scott 2004 ; Scott and House 2005 ; Thompson Sanders 2006 ). However, as Mellor (2004) points out, many of the strategies included in models of coping responses can only be loosely organized according to available rubrics for categorizing coping strategies. For example, it is unclear how to classify spirituality and Africultural coping, which appear to represent multifaceted strategies with some aspects involving problem-focused coping and others involving emotion-focused coping ( Constantine et al. 2002 ; Lewis-Coles and Constantine 2006 ; Utsey et al. 2000a ). There have been inconsistencies even within specific coping domains. For example, seeking social support when confronted by racism has been considered an approach coping strategy ( Scott 2004 ; Scott and House 2005 ; Thompson Sanders 2006 ), a problem-focused coping strategy ( Noh and Kaspar 2003 ; Plummer and Slane 1996 ), an emotion-focused strategy (such as when seeking emotional social support) ( Tull et al. 2005 ), an avoidance strategy (if it involves venting, but no direct confrontation), and a strategy in an entirely separate category ( Danoff-Burg et al. 2004 ; Swim et al. 2003 ; Utsey et al. 2000b ).

Mellor (2004) suggests an alternate framework for organizing racism-related coping that focuses on the function of the coping strategies versus the content of their focus. His model highlights the importance of distinguishing between tasks that serve to prevent personal injury (e.g., denial, acceptance) from those that are intended to remediate, prevent, or punish racism (e.g., assertiveness, aggressive retaliation). This functional approach may be an important step toward developing more effective models of coping with racism, particularly if the purpose is closely linked to the various specific challenges that face targets of discrimination.

Measurement issues

The development of more comprehensive models is further limited by the small number of instruments available to assess racism-related coping. The Perceived Racism Scale ( McNeilly et al. 1996 ) is one of the only instruments available to assess strategies for coping with racism. It is intended for use with African Americans and measures both exposure to experiences of ethnicity-related maltreatment and coping responses to the exposure. For each venue or domain in which racist events might occur (i.e., job-seeking, educational settings, the health-care system), participants are asked to indicate the cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses used to cope with each experience. Other researchers have used generic coping scales (e.g., the Ways of Coping or the Spielberger Anger Expression Inventory) and modified the presentation to inquire about coping in response to race-related maltreatment (e.g., Brondolo et al. 2005b ).

Each of these measures is subject to the limitations of traditional self-reported trait coping indices ( Lazarus 2000 ). It is difficult to evaluate the timing or circumstances in which the coping response is used. For example, when the Self-Report Coping Scale ( Causey and Dubow 1992 ) is applied to the study of racism-coping (e.g., Scott and House 2005 ), participants indicate the degree to which they use strategies such as externalizing (i.e., getting mad or throwing things) as a response to race-related stress. It is unclear if the item refers to expressing anger at the perpetrator of the racist acts (possibly a problem-focused or approach coping strategy) or discharging anger later when thinking about specific incidents (possibly an emotion-focused coping strategy).

Careful delineation of the timing and function of the coping strategy is valuable, because there may be some strategies that are effective in the short run, but counterproductive if used persistently over time. For example, “keeping it to myself” may be a safe strategy to use as an immediate course of action in a situation in which the target may face immediate retaliation, but may be deleterious once the acute maltreatment has ended. Similarly, there may be strategies that are effective and acceptable in some settings, but not others. Measures which include items assessing both immediate and longer term responses and inquire about the circumstances of exposure to maltreatment are needed.

How do people cope with racism?

There are no population-based epidemiological data on the strategies most commonly used to cope with episodes of ethnicity-related maltreatment at the time of the event. There are very limited population-based data on the strategies used to manage discrimination in general. In a population-based sample of over 4,000 Black and White men and women, participants were asked about the ways they handled episodes of racial discrimination ( Krieger and Sidney 1996 ). Most (69–78% depending on race and gender group) indicated they would “try to do something and talk to others.” Only 17–19% indicated that they would “accept it as a fact of life and talk to others.” Most individuals (86–97%) indicated that they would talk to others whether they took action in response to racism or accepted the racist behavior ( Krieger and Sidney 1996 ). In contrast to the tendency of Black and White Americans to indicate that they would try to do something about racism, other research suggests that Asian immigrants in Canada would prefer to “regard it as a fact of life, avoid it or ignore it” ( Noh et al. 1999 ). The ethnic and national differences in response suggest that the moderating effects of culture and immigration status on racism and coping must be further evaluated in larger ethnically diverse population-based studies.

Evaluating different coping approaches

In the next three sections, we review in detail the data on the effectiveness of three coping approaches that have been considered as responses to racism: racial identity development, social support seeking, and confrontation/anger coping. We restrict the reviews to published, peer-reviewed papers. For each topic area, studies for consideration were identified by accessing all major databases including PsychInfo, ERIC, MEDLINE, and Sociology Abstracts, using both ProQuest and EBSCO search engines. We included thesaurus terms racism, ethnic discrimination, racial discrimination, race discrimination, race-related stress . For a general review, we included the terms: coping, active coping, approach coping, stress-management . For the specific review on racial and ethnic identity, we included the terms: racial identity, ethnic identity, and racial socialization. For the section on social support, we included terms: support, social support, support coping, active coping, approach coping . For the section on anger, we included the terms: confrontation, anger, anger expression, anger suppression, anger management, anger-in, anger-out . We further searched the reference sections of each paper to identify additional studies. We also examined all published work of each author of each paper to determine if additional studies could be identified. Examining the empirical data on these three coping approaches highlights in specific detail some of the methodological issues involved in research investigating effective strategies for coping with racism.

Our evaluation of coping effectiveness focuses on stress-buffering effects. A coping response may be said to buffer stress when, among individuals exposed to the stressor, those who engage in that response (or who engage in it to a greater degree) are less likely to experience a negative outcome than those who do not (or who engage in it to a lesser degree). The relative benefit associated with performing the coping response should be smaller or not at all in evidence among those who are not exposed to the stressor. It should be noted that stress-buffering is not the only manner in which a coping response might confer an advantage. Other models are plausible, including mediational models that describe a causal chain in which exposure to stress promotes performance of the coping response which, in turn, promotes more positive outcomes. However, a focus on stress-buffering is warranted since the aim of the paper is to identify those strategies which might be effective in ameliorating the health effects of exposure to racism, and could form the basis of coping-based interventions. Figure 1 provides a graphical illustration of these different possible pathways.

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Different pathways through which coping approaches may offset the effects of racism on mental and physical health.

Racial/ethnic identity as a buffer of the effects of racism on distress

Based on Phinney (1990 , 1996) , Cokley (2007 , p. 225) defines ethnic identity as “the subjective sense of ethnic group membership that involves self-labeling, sense of belonging, preference for the group, positive evaluation of the ethnic group, ethnic knowledge, and involvement in ethnic group activities.” Similarly, racial identity has been defined as “a sense of group or collective identity based on one’s perception that he or she shares a common racial heritage with a particular racial group” ( Helms 1990 , p. 3). There are differences of opinion about the degree to which ethnic and racial identity represent distinct constructs ( Cross and Strauss 1998 ; Helms 1990 ; Phinney and Ong 2007 ). Definitions of both constructs include a focus on shared history, values, and a common heritage. However, those who advocate the study of racial identity as a separate construct suggest that it entails a complex developmental process, reflecting the individual’s attempts to resolve the problems associated with racism directed both at the individual and at the group as a whole.

How could racial or ethnic identity serve as a coping strategy?

Racial and ethnic identity are generally considered individual difference variables, (i.e., an underlying set of schemas that help individuals make sense of and respond to their experiences as a member of their ethnic or racial group) ( Cross and Strauss 1998 ; Helms 1990 ; Phinney and Ong 2007 ). However, researchers explicitly link the process of developing an ethnic identity to other acts that can have stress-buffering effects ( Phinney et al. 2001 ). Some research explicitly frames ethnic identity as a variable possessing characteristics similar to other potential coping responses, capable of buffering the effects of stress exposure (see for example, Lee 2003 ). Despite the ambiguity about the degree to which racial identity can be considered within the domain of coping resources, research on racial identity has a potential impact on public health. If racial identity is mutable, and aspects of racial identity are effective in modifying psychological or psychophysiological responses to racism, those aspects of identity could be incorporated into health communications and could guide racial socialization practices.

Racial/ethnic identity may serve as a coping mechanism in several different ways. Specifically, some aspects of racism may influence the salience of race-related maltreatment and affect the subsequent appraisals of and coping responses to these events ( Oyserman et al. 2003 , Quintana 2007 ). A well-developed racial identity may be associated with historical and experiential knowledge about one’s own group and its social position. In turn this knowledge may help a targeted individual distinguish between actions directed at the person as an individual versus those directed at the person as a member of a particular group ( Cross 2005 ). This can protect targeted individuals from injuries to self-esteem or distress when they are exposed to negative events that may be a function of ethnic discrimination rather than individual characteristics of behavior ( Branscombe et al. 1999 ; Mossakowski 2003 ; Sellers and Shelton 2003 ). Racial socialization could provide an individual with an opportunity to consider possible approaches to this maltreatment and could serve to expedite the implementation of coping responses ( Hughes et al. 2006 ). Ethnic connection and belonging could ameliorate some of the pain of ostracism from other groups.

Appreciating the potential benefits of a well-developed sense of ethnic or racial identity, investigators have generated a large body of research that has examined the nature of racial and ethnic identity, and a smaller body of research that has tested the hypothesis that a strong positive racial or ethnic identity might buffer the effects of racism on mental health/psychological distress. However, the findings to date have been conflicted and present a number of methodological problems that need resolution.

Our review identified 12 published peer-reviewed papers that explicitly tested the hypothesis that ethnic or racial identity buffers the effects of exposure to racism on psychological distress or depression ( Banks and KohnWood 2007 ; Bynum et al. 2007 ; Fischer and Shaw 1999 ; Greene et al. 2006 ; Lee 2003 , 2005 ; Mossakowski 2003 ; Noh et al. 1999 ; Sellers et al. 2003 , 2006 ; Sellers and Shelton 2003 ; Wong et al. 2003 ). Details of the studies, including the samples, measures, and results, are presented in Table 1 . The effects of ethnic identity as a buffer of the relationship of racism to depressive symptoms or psychological distress were tested in samples of African Americans, Filipinos, Koreans, South Asian Indians, and Latino(a)s, with most, but not all, studies employing samples of convenience.

Studies of the buffering effects of racial identity on the relationship of racism to mental physical health indices

Note. AA = African American; MH = mental health; sx = symptoms; discrim. = discrimination; EI = ethnic identity. MIBI = Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity ( Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, & Chavous, 1998 ). RaLES Daily Exper. = Daily Life Experiences subscale from the Racism and Life Experience Scales ( Harrell, 1997 ). CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale ( Radloff, 1977 ). TERS = Teenager Experience with Racial Socialization Scale ( Stevenson et al., 2002 ). BSI = Brief Symptom Inventory ( Deragotis & Melisarotis, 1983 ). PSS = Perceived Stress Scale ( Cohen & Williamson, 1988 ). RaLES-R - Brief Racism Scale = Brief Racism Scale from the Racism and Life Experiences Scales-Revised ( Harrell, 1997a , 1997b ). SORS-A = Scale of Racial Socialization for Adolescents ( Stevenson, 1994 ). SRE = Schedule of Racist Events ( Landrine & Klonoff, 1996 ). MHI = Mental Health Inventory ( Veit & Ware, 1983 ). MEIM = Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure ( Phinney, 1992 ); EI = ethnic identity. PDS = Perceived Personal Ethnic Discrimination ( Finch et al., 2000 ). SCL-90 = Symptom Checklist – 90 – Revised ( Deragotis, 1994 ). DLE = Daily Life Experience subscale of the Racism and Life Experience scales ( Harrell, 1994 ). STAI = State–Trait Anxiety Inventory ( Spielberger, 1983 ).

These studies assessed different aspects of ethnic or racial identity and used several different strategies for measuring these dimensions. Some investigators used measures of pride or belonging, including the Multi-Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM; Phinney 1992 ) or the private regard subscale of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI; Sellers et al. 1997 ). Other investigations included measures of racial centrality, a construct involving the degree to which one’s race or ethnicity forms an important part of self-concept ( Sellers et al. 1997 ). Still other studies included aspects of racial identity that refer to the development of preparation for discrimination, including measures of racial socialization. Three studies ( Greene et al. 2006 ; Sellers et al. 2003 ; Wong et al. 2003 ) used longitudinal designs to examine the degree to which racial identity buffers racism-related changes in depression. The remainder used cross sectional, correlational designs. In all the studies, participants completed measures of racial identity, perceived racism and a measure of depression or psychological distress. To test the buffering effects of racial identity, all researchers directly examined the statistical interactions of racial identity and racism on measures of distress, with the exception of those who used path analytic models ( Sellers et al. 2003 ).

These studies provide only very limited evidence for the hypothesis that racial or ethnic identity buffers the effects of racism on psychological distress. Of the 12 studies specifically examining effects of racism on distress or depression, only two found evidence of a buffering effect of racial identity on at least one measure of distress ( Fischer and Shaw 1999 ; Mossakowski 2003 ). One study was a population-based study investigating these issues in Filipino-American adults ( Mossakowski 2003 ). In this study, ethnic identity acted as a buffer only for the predictive effects of a single item measure of discrimination on depressive symptoms. Ethnic identity did not appear to buffer the effects of everyday maltreatment on depressive symptoms. The other study reporting buffering effects on depressive symptoms was a study of African American young adults ( Fischer and Shaw 1999 ). Six studies ( Bynum et al. 2007 ; Fischer and Shaw 1999 ; Lee 2003 , 2005 ; Sellers et al. 2003 ; Wong et al. 2003 ) reported no buffering effects for either distress or depression. Four studies found some evidence that an aspect of ethnic identity (i.e., pride; Lee 2005 ); public regard ( Sellers et al. 2006 ); commitment/centrality ( Noh et al. 1999 ) or positive attitudes towards other cultures ( Banks and Kohn-Wood 2007 ) may intensify the relationship of racism to distress. 1

In contrast, positive main effects of racial identity on distress were obtained in several studies examining dimensions related to ethnic pride or attachment (e.g., positive attachment to one’s ethnic group (i.e., including the MEIM; Phinney 1992 ), the private regard component of the MIBI or the cultural pride dimension of racial socialization or connection to ethnic group) ( Bynum et al. 2007 ; Lee 2005 ; Mossakowski 2003 ; Sellers et al. 2006 ; Wong et al. 2003 ). However, some studies obtained null ( Fischer and Shaw 1999 ; Lee 2003 ; Noh et al. 1999 ; Wong et al. 2003 ) or reverse effects ( Bynum et al. 2007 ). The effects for dimensions such as centrality were more mixed, with some studies reporting that greater racial centrality was associated with less negative mood ( Sellers et al. 2003 ), whereas another study failed to find the same connection ( Sellers et al. 2006 ). In one study a measure that more explicitly assess those aspects of identity that address preparedness for discrimination was associated with increased distress ( Bynum et al. 2007 ).

These main effects analyses suggest that the pride and belonging dimensions of racial identity may produce a more general feeling of well-being. Aspects of racial identity may buffer the effects of other stressors common to the research participants that were not assessed in the study. However, the effects of these positive racial identity dimensions were not sufficient to offset the impact of perceived racism, and in particular everyday maltreatment, on distress and depressive symptoms.

Findings from Lee (2005) suggest a complex relationship of centrality and pride to depression. In this study of Asian young adults, there was a significant main effect of Ethnic Identity (EI)-Pride, such that those with relatively high scores on the ethnic pride dimension of the MEIM (derived from a factor analysis conducted in the same sample) had fewer depressive symptoms than those with low scores. However, among those with high EI-Pride scores, the effects of racism on depressive symptoms were stronger than for those who did not feel a great deal of pride in their ethnic group. This suggests that enhancing pride may reduce depression overall, but may be related to greater symptom reports when individuals are exposed to racism. Racial identity as a buffer of cardiovascular reactivity to race-related stress

There are also two studies that examined racial identity as a moderator or buffer of the relationship of race-related stress to an index of cardiovascular response. These measures of cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) appear to be markers for processes involved in the development of hypertension and coronary heart disease. However, it is difficult to evaluate the meaning of reactivity data in some of these studies, since there are some limitations to the presentations of the existing studies. Clark and Gochett (2006) reported finding an inverse relationship between private regard and cardiac output and stroke volume (measures of sympathetic nervous system influences on the heart) before, during, and after racial and non-racial stressors. The authors interpreted the inverse relationship to suggest higher levels of arousal for those high in private regard; however, analyses directly examining the relationship of identity to the change from baseline are not reported. Similarly, Torres and Bowens (2000) reported positive correlations of the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-B) internalization attitudes (indicating more acceptance of both Black and Caucasian groups) with systolic blood pressure (SBP) reactivity to both race and non-race related stressors. These findings may indicate that individuals with Black oriented identities (i.e., those who are low on internalization) are better prepared to confront episodes of racism as they expect this maltreatment. However, the data are difficult to interpret, as greater increases in SBP may also indicate greater task engagement and no measures were made of level of effort or involvement. Without data on subjective response to the task, it is difficult to interpret these findings.

In contrast, in a study of the main effect of racial identity on both resting and ambulatory blood pressure (BP), Thompson et al. (2002) found that a transitional racial identity, marked by an intense involvement in in-group activities and an “idealization of African American and African American culture and a devaluation of White culture,” was associated with higher levels of resting and ambulatory BP. The authors suggest that a transitional identity may intensify the perception of racial bias and make race-related conflict more salient, increasing the frequency with which individuals experience interpersonal stress. However, no data were available on the race-related social interactions experienced by the participants.

What accounts for the mixed findings on the effects of racial identity?

The effects of racial identity on mental and physical health are complex, and the data do not support a uniformly positive effect of each aspect of racial or ethnic identity on mental health. The bulk of the evidence suggests that ethnic pride may be associated with fewer depressive symptoms overall, but the results indicate that pride and other aspects of ethnic/racial identity are not sufficient to buffer the effects of racism on depressive symptoms for most (but not all) samples. It is important to note that some aspects of racial identity appear to intensify the relationship of racism to depression.

Ethnic pride may not buffer the pain of race-based ostracism, since social rejection is painful, even when other sources of social connection are available ( Baumeister et al. 2005 ; MacDonald and Leary 2005 ). Further, race-based social rejection or exclusion may heighten the awareness of race-related stereotypes and elicit concerns about stereotype threat. In turn these concerns may evoke feelings of anxiety and shame ( Cohen and Garcia 2005 ; Steele 1997 ). Messages of cultural pride may not be adequate to counteract the emotional consequences of demeaning treatment.

There is also some evidence that ostracism is associated with a decrease in self-awareness and self-regulation ( Baumeister et al. 2005 ; MacDonald and Leary 2005 ). This blunting of self-awareness may help the individual block some of the injury to self-esteem associated with social rejection. However, reductions in self-awareness in response to personal threat may also limit the individual’s ability to access self-related schemas (e.g., racial identity or ethnic pride) that might facilitate coping. Laboratory studies are needed to assess the effects of priming racial salience on responses to acute race-related stressors and to evaluate the effects of increasing versus decreasing self-awareness during these manipulations ( Baumeister et al. 2005 ).

The effects of racial centrality appear to be more variable than the effects of racial/ethnic pride and belonging. There may be circumstances in which drawing attention to race and heightening awareness of potential exposure to racism protect individuals from its harmful effects ( Fischer and Shaw 1999 ), but there is also evidence that racial centrality can intensify distress ( Sellers et al. 2006 ). The awareness that one may be targeted for racism may help individuals gather the strength they need to avoid being denied rights or misjudging their own competence, but this awareness can also be exhausting, elicit distress and anger, and erode some relationships. This is consistent with data on the use of avoidance coping in African Americans reported by Thompson Sanders (2006) . Further work is needed to identify the types and timing of the complex of racial socialization messages that increase awareness without destroying hope or inflicting a costly emotional burden. The nature of these messages may vary by socioeconomic status and parental involvement, and some personality dimensions ( Scott 2003 , 2004 ), and the role of these potential moderators has also not been adequately explored.

There is some evidence that racial identity buffers the effects of racism on self-esteem and some measures of academic performance (e.g., Oyserman et al. 2001 ; Wong et al. 2003 ). Failure to find substantial buffering effects for depression and distress may be a function of the need to match the type of coping strategy with the expected outcome. Racial identity is related to self-concept and pride, and as a consequence may have effects primarily on aspects of functioning that are tied to self-concept versus more global affective states.

The data on the effectiveness of racial identity as a buffer of the relationship of racism to BP or BP reactivity is too limited to support firm conclusions. The findings suggest, however, that measures of racial identity may tap psychological dimensions that influence coping with stressors on a day-to-day basis. These schemas may influence the degree to which individuals are able to engage in challenge or feel they must defend themselves from threat. Both engagement and defensiveness influence cardiovascular dynamics. Continued research on the ways in which racial identity affects appraisals of laboratory tasks and everyday events, and in turn influence cardiovascular and neuroendocrine responses, would be very useful.

Social support as a buffer of the effects of racism on mental and physical health

Social support has been defined as the presence or availability of network members who express concern, love, and care for an individual and provide coping assistance ( Sarason et al. 1983 ). Seeking social support involves communication with others (e.g., family, friends, and community members) about events or experiences. Within the Black community, seeking social support has sometimes been more specifically labeled as “leaning on shoulders” ( Shorter-Gooden 2004 ). This term refers to seeking out and talking to others as a means of coping with racial discrimination.

How might social support buffer the effects of racism on distress?

It is widely accepted that social support is beneficial for physical and psychological health ( Allgower et al. 2001 ; Barnett and Gotlib 1988 ; Symister and Friend 2003 ). A supportive social network promotes a sense of security and connectedness, helping the individual to understand that discrimination is a shared experience. Group members can serve as models, guiding the individual in effective methods for responding to and coping with discrimination. Placing the event in a collective context can also help the individual to feel more connected to his or her ethnic/racial group and can activate racial identity ( Harrell 2000 ; Mellor 2004 ). Greater participation in social activities may help to distract individuals and provide them with positive experiences that may buffer the negative impact of a range of stressors including racism ( Finch and Vega 2003 ).

Seeking social support is commonly used as a coping strategy following a racist incident ( Krieger 1990 ; Krieger and Sidney 1996 ; Lalonde et al. 1995 ; Mellor 2004 ; Shorter-Gooden 2004 ; Swim et al. 2003 ; Thompson Sanders 2006 ; Utsey et al. 2000b ). In Black college students, Swim et al. (2003) found that 68% of the sample discussed a racist incident with their family, friends, or others. In two separate studies, Krieger found that the vast majority of Black individuals sampled reported “talking to others” in response to racial discrimination ( Krieger 1990 ; Krieger and Sidney 1996 ). Furthermore, a majority of Black Canadians reported “seeking advice” and “telling others about the discrimination” in response to a hypothetical situation involving housing rejection based on ethnic discrimination ( Lalonde et al. 1995 ). Although social support is hypothesized to serve as an effective strategy for coping with racism, there has been surprisingly limited empirical research testing this hypothesis.

We are aware of only three empirical tests of the hypothesis that social support buffers the effects of racism on distress ( Fischer and Shaw 1999 ; Noh and Kaspar 2003 ; Thompson Sanders 2006 ), and four studies examining the hypothesis that social support buffers the effects of racism on physical health-related measures (i.e., self-reported health or cardiovascular reactivity to stress) ( Clark 2003 ; Clark and Gochett 2006 ; Finch and Vega 2003 ; McNeilly et al. 1995 ). Diverse ethnic groups were included in the studies. Some studies assessed the tendency to seek social support or guidance in response to racist events ( Noh and Kaspar 2003 ; Thompson Sanders 2006 ), whereas others examined the availability of support (i.e., size of network) or quality of general social support ( Clark 2003 ; Finch and Vega 2003 ; Fischer and Shaw 1999 ; McNeilly et al. 1995 ). Further details of the studies are presented in Table 2 .

Studies of the buffering effects of social support on the relationship of racism to mental or physical health indices

Note. sx = symptoms; discrim. = discrimination. SBP = systolic blood pressure; DBP = diastolic blood pressure. BP = blood pressure. SRE = Schedule of Racist Events ( Landrine & Klonoff, 1996 ). MHI = Mental Health Inventory ( Veit & Ware, 1983 ). CES-D-K = Korean version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale ( Noh et al., 1998 ; Radloff, 1977 ). CRI = Coping Responses Inventory–Adult Form ( Moos, 1993 ).

The three studies examining the buffering effects of seeking social support on the relationship of racism to distress failed to find positive effects ( Fischer and Shaw 1999 ; Noh and Kaspar 2003 ; Thompson Sanders 2006 ). However, two of these three studies found main effects of social support on depressive symptoms.

The effects are more mixed among the four studies examining the buffering effects of support on a health-related outcome. Finch and Vega (2003) found robust effects of instrumental support on perceived health in a population-based sample of Mexican Americans. Discrimination was not related to health among those with high levels of support, but was associated with poorer health for those with low levels of support. Two studies found buffering effects of support seeking, but only for those who were exposed to low levels of racism ( Clark 2003 ; Clark and Gochett 2006 ). Specifically, Clark (2003) reported that self-reported quantity and quality of social support were associated with reduced DBP reactivity to a non-racial stressor (i.e., mental arithmetic), but only for those who had experienced relatively low levels of racism over the course of their lives. Similarly, in a school-based study, Clark and Gochett (2006) found that youth who indicated that they would “talk to others” had a lower incidence of elevated BP (above 90th percentile) than those who did not endorse this item, but these effects were seen only among those who experienced low levels of racism. In contrast, among those exposed to high levels of racism, “talking to others” was associated with a higher prevalence of elevated BP. Finally, in a laboratory study, McNeilly et al. (1995) reported that providing support (in the form of a supportive confederate) did not reduce cardiovascular reactivity in response to racist provocation (i.e., debating about race-related topics), but did reduce self-reported anger. There are two additional studies that examined the relationship of support to race-related stress in African Americans, but they did not directly test the hypothesis that social support buffers the effects of racism on psychological distress ( Scott and House 2005 ; Utsey et al. 2000a, b ).

Despite the generally null findings of the quantitative studies, two qualitative reports about seeking social support in response to ethnic or racial discrimination suggest beneficial effects. In a diary study of perceived discrimination, participants reported that it was helpful to discuss racist incidents with another person ( Swim et al. 2003 ). Similarly, African American men participating in an African-centered support group for confronting racism reported decreases in levels of anger and frustration. They also reported engaging in fewer interpersonal conflicts with significant others after attending the support group ( Elligan and Utsey 1999 ).

What accounts for the mixed findings on social support?

Overall, the quantitative literature provides minimal support for the hypothesis that social support (either seeking social support or having a supportive network) buffers the impact of racism on psychological health. It also provides very mixed support for the notion that social support buffers racism effects on indices of physical health. There is some suggestion that social support may be helpful at low levels of stress exposure, but exacerbates difficulties at high levels of exposure. Yet, these results are contrary to anecdotal reports or findings from qualitative studies, and largely contrast with the findings from other literatures on the buffering effects of support in the face of other stressors (mostly medical illnesses). What accounts for these variations?

Measures and research design

General difficulties with the social support research have been outlined by Uchino (2006) . Variations in the conceptualization and measurement of social support make the results of studies examining the effects of support as a buffer of the effects of racism on distress or health difficult to interpret. In the studies reviewed, four separate support-related constructs have been studied: seeking support to obtain guidance for ways to manage racism; general support network size, general support network quality, and the proportion of relationships with people of the same ethnicity. The quality of the measurement instruments also varies, with some studies assessing social support seeking using two questions in a self-report survey or diary ( Noh and Kaspar 2003 ; Swim et al. 2003 ).

The research designs of some studies also have some limitations, as cross sectional correlational designs fail to reveal the direction of the effects. In the Clark and Gochett (2006) study, there are some correlations between exposure to higher levels of racism and seeking support, suggesting that the level of support seeking is in fact a function of the degree of stress exposure. Prospective cohort and laboratory studies may be necessary to more clearly distinguish the direction of the relationship between support and distress. Different types of support may be necessary at different points in time, and no studies have examined perceived needs for support at different stages in the experience of ethnicity-related maltreatment. For example, concrete advice and emotional support may be needed at the time of the incident, whereas support focused on meaning and hope may be needed as individuals confront the possibility of more sustained exposure.

Social constraint and facilitation

Some of the failure to find positive effects associated with social support may be a function of issues related to both social constraint and social facilitation. Lepore and Revenson (2007) propose that social constraints limit the effectiveness of certain social support interventions. Seeking support for race-related maltreatment may entail discussions that are anxiety provoking for both the seekers and givers of support. For members of stigmatized groups, discussions of racism may evoke recollections that feel uncontrollable and are stressful. For members of a majority out-group, stereotype threat may be evoked if individuals become concerned about appearing cruel, uncaring, or insensitive when discussing race-related conflict ( Richeson and Shelton 2007 ). Anxiety on the part of both the in-group and out-group members may inhibit effective communication about race-related incidents. When individuals receive messages that tend to minimize or deny aspects of their experience, support seeking may be ineffective and associated with increased versus decreased distress ( Badr and Taylor 2006 ). Research on the dynamics of interracial communication may provide guidance for further research on the types of communication that can minimize social constraints and facilitate inter-racial communication ( Czopp et al. 2006 ; Richeson and Shelton 2005 ).

As Utsey et al. (2002) points out, social facilitation may increase distress when individuals discuss discrimination with other members of their group. The experience of sharing episodes of ethnicity-related maltreatment may arouse greater anger as individuals exchange accounts of their experiences. If the situations appear hopeless or if individuals in the discussion have had negative experiences managing race-related interactions themselves, other negative emotions, including fear, frustration, grief, shame and loss, may also be evoked. Further research is needed to determine how variations in the circumstances in which support is sought and in the content of support message confer different costs and benefits to the target of discrimination. It will be important to understand how best to acknowledge the difficulties and pain associated with exposure to discrimination without eliminating hope or generating additional stress.

Confrontation and anger expression

Race-related maltreatment evokes anger ( Brondolo et al. 2008 ; Broudy et al. 2007 ; Landrine and Klonoff 1996 ). Consequently, many models of coping with racism recognize the need to address the anger evoked by ethnicity-related maltreatment ( Mellor 2004 ), and some of the seminal studies of the effects of racial stress examined anger coping ( Harburg et al. 1979 , 1991 ). Anger coping strategies used in response to ethnicity-related maltreatment may address two goals. The first involves using anger coping strategies, including confrontation, to influence the outcome of the race-related conflict. For example, the expression of anger can be used to motivate the perpetrator to change his or her behavior or to motivate others to take action ( Swim et al. 2003 ). The second goal of anger coping strategies is to manage the emotional burden created by the anger.

Researchers have used several different approaches to assess constructs related to anger expression and confrontation. In some cases, anger coping that involves directly protesting maltreatment has been subsumed under the term confrontation coping ( Noh et al. 1999 ). In other cases, researchers have directly examined the effects of different strategies for anger expression, including outward anger expression (Anger-Out) or anger suppression (Anger-In) (e.g., Dorr et al. 2007 ).

Despite the obvious importance of studying the effects of anger coping, there have been relatively few studies directly addressing these issues. Specifically, there have been two survey studies that examine the effects of confrontation coping as a buffer of the relationship of racism to distress ( Noh et al. 1999 ; Noh and Kaspar 2003 ). There have been five studies examining the effects of anger coping or confrontation as a means of managing racist interactions on BP ( Armstead and Clark 2002 ; Dorr et al. 2007 ; Krieger 1990 ; Krieger and Sidney 1996 ; Steffen et al. 2003 ). Details of these studies are presented in Table 3 .

Studies of the buffering effects of anger expression on the relationship of racism to mental and physical health indices

Note. HTN = Hypertension. ABP = ambulatory blood pressure. BP = blood pressure. SBP = systolic blood pressure. DBP = diastolic blood pressure. MAS = Multidimensional Anger Scale ( Siegel, 1986 ). PRS = Perceived Racism Scale ( McNeilly et al., 1996 ).

In two population-based samples of Asian immigrants, Noh and colleagues examined confrontation coping using measures which include an item assessing direct protests to the perpetrator. In the South Asian sample (i.e., composed largely of Chinese and Vietnamese), Noh and Kaspar (2003) reported no effects of confrontation on the relationship of perceived discrimination to depression. In contrast, in a study of Korean immigrants, the authors reported that personal confrontation coping (i.e., directly protesting or talking to the perpetrator) moderated the effects of discrimination on depression, such that those who were more likely to confront reported less depression in the face of discrimination than those who indicate they are less likely to confront ( Noh et al. 1999 ).

A recent diary study by Hyers (2007) examined costs and benefits associated with confrontation coping, although no measure was made of depression or health. She considered outcomes including rumination-related behaviors (i.e., feelings of emotional upset, regret, wishing to respond differently in the future) and experiences of self-efficacy (i.e., “the perpetrator was educated”) as well as interpersonal conflict. These intermediate outcomes may be predictors of depression over the long run, and potentially serve to maintain the stress associated with the episodes of racism. Hyers reported that when women responded to incidents of racism or sexism with confrontation coping, they were less likely to ruminate and more likely to feel they had been efficacious. Those who did not confront were more likely to report a benefit of avoiding interpersonal conflict; however, it is not clear if the women who did confront actually experienced more conflict.

In five studies using different methodologies, the effects of anger coping on BP levels or reactivity and recovery were examined ( Armstead et al. 1989 ; Dorr et al. 2007 ; Krieger 1990 ; Krieger and Sidney 1996 ; Steffen et al. 2003 ). The results were fairly consistent and are detailed in Table 3 . The main effects analyses indicate that suppressing anger in the face of discrimination is associated with higher levels of BP or poorer cardiovascular recovery from race-related stress exposure. However, there is also some evidence that, for African Americans, expressing anger may be associated with poorer cardiovascular recovery as well.

In two population-based samples, Krieger and colleagues examined the effects of exposure to discrimination and responses to discrimination, contrasting the effects of “doing something about it” with “accepting it as a fact of life”. Among a small sample of Black women, those who reported “doing something about it (discrimination)” were less likely to have a hypertension diagnosis than those who “accepted and kept quiet about it” ( Krieger 1990 ). In Krieger and Sidney (1996) , a large scale population-based study of Black and White individuals, the blood pressure levels of those who reported “doing something about it” were lower than those of individuals who reported “accepting it.” Statistical tests of moderation were not performed, making it difficult to determine if buffering effects were present.

Steffen et al. (2003) reported that trait anger suppression was independently associated with ambulatory DBP in a convenience sample of African Americans. However, neither anger suppression nor expression moderated the effects of racism on ambulatory BP. Armstead et al. (1989) and Dorr et al. (2007) conducted laboratory studies examining the relationship of anger coping to BP response to a racist stressor. Armstead et al. (1989) reported that for Blacks anger suppression was marginally associated with greater SBP at baseline. A style of anger coping in which anger is outwardly expressed was marginally associated with baseline levels of mean arterial pressure and reduced SBP and DBP reactivity to the racist stressor.

In the Dorr et al. study (2007) , African American and European American participants engaged in race and nonrace-related debates facing a European American confederate. Following the tasks participants were given opportunities to express versus inhibit anger. The authors reported that for both African Americans and European Americans, anger inhibition was associated with slower recovery of indices of total peripheral resistance, a measure of vascular response. For African Americans, BP and HR recovery was slower when they were allowed to express their anger than when they were asked to inhibit it, and recovery was also slower than the recovery of EA who were able to express their anger. These effects suggest that anger suppression exacerbates vascular recovery to stress for both groups; whereas outward anger expression exacerbates cardiac and other CV indices of recovery to stress for Blacks.

The authors suggest that one possible explanation for these findings is that anger suppression can lead to rumination if issues are not resolved satisfactorily. However, anger expression may lead to anxiety about retaliation or abandonment if social relations are threatened by direct expression of anger. Both rumination and persistent anxiety may be associated with sustained physiological activation following stress exposure ( Brosschot et al. 2006 ).

What accounts for the variations in the effects of confrontation as a buffer of the effects of racism on depression?

The specific effects of confrontation coping are difficult to interpret, since confrontation coping is subsumed under the general heading of approach coping or problem solving coping and includes items measuring social support seeking as well as “going to the authorities”. Second, the type of confrontation (i.e., hot and angry versus cold and unemotional) is generally not specifically examined, yet laboratory research suggests that the effects of the confrontation depend in part on the emotional quality of the confrontation ( Czopp et al. 2006 ).

Although the limited literature suggests that most Black and White individuals report trying to “do something” about racism ( Krieger and Sidney 1996 ; Plummer and Slane 1996 ; Thompson Sanders 2006 ), diary studies suggest that individuals report thinking about confrontation or indirectly or non-verbally expressing their anger more often than they actually engage in direct anger expression ( Hyers 2007 ). Measures are needed that separate intent from action or more explicitly identify the specific actions taken.

It is also necessary to consider the context in which the conflict occurs when evaluating the effects of anger coping or confrontation. Individuals will hesitate to express anger directly if they believe there will be retaliatory consequences for this anger expression. In any given interaction, individuals with relatively lower levels of power or status are more likely to suppress anger than high power individuals ( Gentry et al. 1973 ). The location of the conflict (i.e., work or social arena) may also influence the choice of coping strategies ( Brondolo et al. 2005b ). Cultural variations in the importance of maintaining relationships may also affect the outcomes associated with confrontation ( Noh et al. 1999 ; Suchday and Larkin 2004 ). Research is needed to clearly differentiate among different types of confrontation strategies and to identify situational and cultural variations in the types of strategies used and their effectiveness.

Some of the health effects of different individual-level coping strategies are likely to be a function of the efficacy of the coping strategies themselves. If the strategies for confrontation and anger coping are effective on some dimensions (e.g., reducing overt expressions of prejudice), but costly on others (e.g., social relations), individuals may not perceive themselves as having appropriate coping resources, making it more likely that they will perceive interracial or race-based maltreatment as stressful. Evaluating a broad range of outcome measures from the target’s perspective (e.g., mental and physical health, rumination, satisfaction with outcome, perceived benefits) is critical. Investigating the perceptions of these different coping strategies from the perspective of others is also important. The growing literature on other’s perceptions of confrontation and other coping strategies ( Czopp et al. 2006 ; Kawakami et al. 2007 ) can provide guidance for future studies on anger coping. More knowledge regarding the perceptions of different coping strategies by individuals of other ethnicities/races can help guide individuals as they weigh the costs and benefits of various responses.

Summary and future directions

The strongest and clearest conclusion that can be drawn from this review is that there is a significant need for further research on strategies for coping with racism. No coping strategy has emerged as a clearly successful strategy for offsetting the mental or physical health impacts of racism. Instead, each approach has some demonstrated strengths, but also considerable side effects or limitations.

Ethnic and racial identity develop to meet multiple needs, including enhancing one’s pride and commitment to one’s cultural group as well as helping individuals develop meaningful strategies for managing discrimination based on racial or ethnic bias. Studies suggest that racial identity, particularly racial or ethnic pride and belonging may have beneficial effects in some circumstances. But these components of identity are not sufficient to ameliorate the effects of racism on the development of depressive symptoms and may increase the detection of threat and the perception of harm.

Involvement with only one type of identity may restrict the individuals’ ability to consider multiple perspectives and learn a range of coping options. Instead, in an increasingly multicultural society, it will be important to understand the best ways to help individuals master the complex psychological tasks involved in maintaining individual, group and national identities, particularly when the values at one level contrast with the values at another. Oyserman has specifically suggested that a “possible selves” approach, encouraging individuals to incorporate aspects of different types of group identities, may be of benefit ( Oyserman et al. 2007 ).

It may be that the strength of this approach is not only in gaining the benefits of having multiple roles, but in the process of mastering the underlying cognitive-affective processes that subserve these identities. Learning to think about oneself as a member of many different groups requires considering multiple perspectives and developing the ability to shift the focus of one’s attention even when experiencing strong emotion. Additionally, individuals must learn to integrate specific individualized information (e.g., about stressors and resources specific to the individual) with larger category-based information (e.g., about stressors and resources conferred because of group membership). In the process of developing an awareness of many possible identities, individuals may also strengthen their own capacity for effective coping in a range of circumstances and increase their ability to draw support from a number of different groups. Similarly, social support appears to be beneficial in a variety of circumstances, but the available data do not support a direct role for non-specific social support as a buffer of the effects of racism on distress. A greater understanding of the types of support beneficial for different phases and dimensions of the experience of racism will be needed to facilitate the development of support-based interventions including, for example, group based stress-management programs.

The clinical literature ( Elligan and Utsey 1999 ; Utsey et al. 2002 ) may provide some guidance for the specific types of support that may be valuable at different points in time. It may be necessary to include communication that is aimed at validating the individual’s experience (i.e., the perception that race-based maltreatment may have occurred), while also offering opportunities to review the circumstances and identify factors that elicited perceptions of threat. This type of support is needed to decrease defensiveness and increase the capacity to clearly articulate specific concerns and develop appropriate strategies to manage the specific threat. But acute problem-focused support may not be sufficient. Support may also be needed to address and ameliorate the painful nature of racism, providing an opportunity to address not only the feelings of anger, but of shame and anxiety as well. Finally, still other forms of support may be needed to provide hope and the motivation and direction to reduce racism and its effects over the long term.

The psychobiological effects of anger suppression among African Americans are among the most consistent findings in the literature on coping with racism. These data suggest that suppressing anger in the face of discrimination is associated with elevated BP or greater BP responses, but the studies have included only African Americans or European Americans. Other data suggest that there may be cultural moderators of these effects, since the association between anger suppression and distress varies depending on the individual’s ethnicity or race.

Yet, it is unclear what the effective alternatives to anger suppression and aggressive confrontation might be. We need better and more detailed answers to the questions: What is the most effective method to protest ethnicity-related maltreatment? How can anger be used to effectively communicate the seriousness of injustice without exhausting the targets of injustice? If individuals suppress anger at the time of the maltreatment, how can they reintroduce the discussion and communicate their concerns and remedy the injustice later? Understanding the predictors of anger suppression and confrontation both at the time of the incident and over the long run is likely to yield insight into the costs and benefits of these different approaches and to suggest more effective strategies.

Since racism and strategies for coping with racism occur within an interpersonal context, it is important to understand how different behaviors are perceived by others. Czopp et al. (2006) indicates that confrontation coping can be very effective in changing a perpetrator’s beliefs and behavior. The different features of the confrontation (e.g., the ethnicity of the confronter, the emotional tone of the message) are associated with variations in the effectiveness of the confrontation in changing behavior and eliciting negative reactions. The literature on coping with racism must be closely integrated with the empirical literature on the perceptions of targeted individuals by members of other racial or ethnic groups ( Kawakami et al. 2007 ). With this knowledge, individuals can make better predictions about the likely outcomes of their efforts to combat racism and to become increasingly effective in their communication.

Cultural norms have changed regarding the acceptability of overtly discriminatory behavior. Social modeling via the media and other methods has been used to communicate more egalitarian values and to deride racist behavior. It may be useful to use similar methods to generate and model strategies for communicating concern and anger about more subtle discriminatory or stigmatizing actions.

There are conceptual and methodological problems with the existing literature that are common to a new research area confronting a complex and disturbing problem. Some difficulties are related to problems in conceptualizing racism-related coping, and developing models that incorporate the different types of strategies needed to accommodate variations in demand across time and across contexts. To date, very few studies have examined the degree to which the effects of racism-related coping strategies vary by context or timing, and very few have examined the degree to which individual difference variables, including the presence of other background stressors or personality dimensions, shape the type of coping choice ( Brondolo et al. 2008 ; Scott 2004 ) or moderate its effectiveness ( Danoff-Burg et al. 2004 ; Scott 2004 ).

Surprisingly, almost no studies have examined variations in the effectiveness of the strategies by the stage of the incident (i.e., in preparation for future difficulties, at the time of the incident or following the termination of the conflict). Additionally, investigations have not adequately separated out the types of strategies most effective for managing the practical consequences of exposure versus the emotional consequences of confronting unjust social exclusion. The development of new measures of racism-related coping that incorporate issues of timing, context, and intent are needed.

Research is also needed to investigate the differential effects of any particular strategy on functioning, affect and health. Some coping strategies, for example, may be effective in limiting exposure to racism, but may have detrimental effects on mental and physical health. Outcomes must also include assessments of the target’s perceptions of effectiveness as well.

Because coping strategies may have side effects, there is a need for more research involving multiple outcome measures. Confrontational coping may have the side effect of creating or exacerbating interpersonal conflict. Anger suppression may have the side effect of increasing rumination. Social support seeking can be distracting or confusing. The results of studies reporting effects that are limited to one or two outcome domains may be misleading regarding the overall effectiveness of the coping responses examined.

In this review, we have chosen to consider a coping strategy as effective if it ameliorates some of the deleterious health effects of racism, specifically effects on depression symptoms or risk factors for hypertension. However, there may be other dimensions of effectiveness worth considering: Does the strategy for coping with racism reduce the incidence of racism over the long run? Does it achieve the personal goals of the target (i.e., to get a job, to avoid exclusion) even it if incurs some consequences as well? Does it decrease fear?

A fuller understanding of the potential benefits of strategies for coping with racism will be facilitated by intervention research. Ultimately, these will have the broadest impact if delivered and evaluated on a community, institutional, or national scale. Public education messages and school-based health promotion activities have the potential of reaching a large and diverse audience. But they will only be as effective as the coping responses that they attempt to promote.

We focused on stress-buffering, which is only one model of the manner in which coping responses may ameliorate the effects of exposure to racism. As shown in Fig. 1 , other plausible models include mediational models that posit simultaneous causal effects of stress on coping and of coping on outcomes. Some of the strategies that we have examined, such as anger expression or racial identity development, may be better considered as responses that emerge as a function of discrimination rather than as coping responses that develop independently of exposure. Developing different strategies may require a substantial effort on the part of the target. Both buffering and mediational models are best examined in large-scale, longitudinal studies, which are in short supply in the published literature.

Early models of coping may have reflected the more general societal view that racial and ethnic discrimination were an immutable feature of life. As legal, economic, and social conditions change, the possibilities for coping with ethnic and racial discrimination will change as well. As new solutions and opportunities develop, the models of these coping strategies will also evolve.

Research on strategies for coping with racism is necessary to empower targeted individuals to develop and choose methods that are effective at reducing discrimination, increasing hope, and buffering the impact of racism on health. As we come to understand a fuller range of consequences of each strategy, we can provide better guidance to help individuals make more informed choices about the ways they wish to cope with racism and protect their health. We hope that this knowledge and the detailed description of the ways in which racism is experienced by the targets will contribute to the elimination of discriminatory behavior.

1 Two additional studies report buffering effects on perceived stress, but not depressive symptoms ( Sellers et al., 2003 ; Sellers et al., 2006 ). Four studies reported buffering effects of racial/ethnicity identity on self-esteem or academic orientation, achievement or efficacy, even when the authors reported that they did not find buffering effects on measures of distress or depression ( Sellers et al., 2003 ; Wong et al., 2003 ) or did not examine effects on depression ( Oyserman & Fryberg, 2006 ; Romero & Roberts, 2003 ). There are also laboratory studies examining the effects of identity on emotional responses to racism-type manipulations ( Ellemers, 1997 ). These provide important insights into the nature of group and individual processes on identity development, but it is not clear that the measures used in these studies are of relevance to the hypothesis that racial/ethnic identity buffers the effects of exposure to racism on clinically significant distress.

Contributor Information

Elizabeth Brondolo, St. John’s University.

Nisha Brady, St. John’s University.

Melissa Pencille, St. John’s University.

Danielle Beatty, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center.

Richard J. Contrada, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey.

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racism research paper topics

Top 70 Racism Topics For Research Paper That Really Stand Out

Racism Topics For Research Paper

The year 2020 has seen the United States of America experience violence in various racism claims. When George Floyd was killed in May this year, Minneapolis, Minnesota, and other US states went awash with protests. Never before in recent American history have such demonstrations occurred. That is why finding racism topics for your research paper is essential. Here is a list of professionally handpicked racism topics for your motivation.

Causes of Racism Argumentative Topics For Research Paper

  • Is the ego the leading cause of racism in the United States?
  • Is racism the result of people’s direct experience with other backgrounds?
  • Are associations and the mind forms silent fuels for discrimination?
  • Is the reticular activating system a stimulus for discrimination?
  • Should we attribute racism to the ignorance in the world?
  • Are supremacy attitudes among the whites the cause?
  • Do we have an appropriate education curriculum addressing racism?

How To Deal With Racism Research Topics

  • How to stand up for yourself in a racial attack
  • The role of confidence and self-assurance when dealing with racism
  • Why you should point out the racial words or behavior instead of generalization
  • Citizens should know their rights to combat racism
  • Understanding the differences between racist actions and racist people
  • The importance of learning other cultures and languages
  • Recognizing the impacts of racism

Topics on Racism History

  • Historical policies of systematic discrimination
  • The contribution of the Holocaust to racism
  • Racism and North American slavery and the colonization
  • The exploitation of the minorities during colonization and its impact on racism today
  • The role of naming schools after confederates and racism
  • Racism comments from Albert Einstein’s diaries
  • Why the Georgia county drove out every black resident in 1912

Research Topics About Racism Laws

  • A critical analysis of The Race Relations Act 1976
  • The United Nations’ international convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination in 1965
  • The role of international and domestic law in combating racism
  • Racial distinctions in the law
  • The Equality Act of 2010 and its impact on racism
  • Laws that guard against racially offensive material on the internet
  • Does the law provide for harsh racial speeches at a public rally?

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Racism Research Paper Topics on the Economic Aspects

  • How racism suppresses the economic mobility of people with different races
  • The role of creating more jobs in combating racial claims
  • Recipients of the healthcare assistance programs in countries
  • How racism has crept into the US economy
  • Racial discrimination against property rights and reconstruction
  • Why the lack of the feeling of belonging stirs economic recession
  • Employment rates for minorities in America.

Interesting Topics About Racism

  • When was the first racial attack, and why?
  • Why is racism still persistent in the 21st century?
  • Reasons why discrimination is both unethical and immoral
  • Should we regard racism as people with a mental disorder?
  • Is religion one of the key players in racism?
  • Why is the term ‘third world’ a racist declaration?
  • What is the relationship between racism and homophobia?

Research Topics About Race and Racism

  • Why the white supremacy battle is terrible for the world
  • Does the color of your skin matter in any circumstance?
  • Why is Western civilization causing a lack of appeal for the black race?
  • The role of different languages and their races in racism
  • Is the American Dream a cause for discrimination?
  • A critical approach to the subject of race and racism
  • Differences between race and racism and the confusion surrounding these two terms

Racism Argumentative Topics For Research Paper

  • Is race a factor in the race crimes experienced in the US?
  • Should we call Malcolm X a racist?
  • Do racial movements contribute to combating racism?
  • Is the work of Charles Darwin filled with racial ideas?
  • Should police brutality be seen in the line of racism?
  • Should the United States put sanctions against racial protests?
  • Do violent racial protests justify the problem at hand?

Sociology Racism Topics

  • The impact of racism on the process of identity formation
  • How racism shapes one’s trajectory in life
  • The effect of racism on student-teacher relationships
  • How policing tactics contribute to racial discrimination
  • Residential segregation and its place in racism
  • The sociology of race and social ethnicity in America
  • Understanding the concept of ‘white privilege’ in racism

Good Research Topics Dealing With Racism

  • A study of the different types of racism
  • What are the causes of racial prejudices?
  • The role of political campaigns in alleviating or fueling up racism
  • The origins and history of the Black Lives Matter movement
  • Compare and contrast discrimination in the US and other European countries
  • Can a person indeed be an anti-racist in the current society?
  • How can we use social media to sensitize people on the effects of racism?

Racism remains a contemporary issue, and thus your lecturer can give you an assignment on this subject at any time. Students need to arm themselves with the latest racism-related topics for top grades. If all these don’t seem to work, seeking professional college paper help would be the best solution. Get your paper done by experts, fast and easy today!

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372 Racism Essay Titles & Writing Examples

  • 🔖 Secrets of Powerful Racism Essay

🏆 Best Racism Topic Ideas & Essay Examples

🥇 most interesting racism topics to write about, 🎓 simple & easy racism essay titles, ⚡ shocking essay topics on racism, 👍 good essay topics on racism, 💡 interesting essay titles about racism, ❓ racism questions for essay.

Looking for powerful racism essay topics? You will find them here! This list contains a great variety of titles for racism-themed papers. We’ve also included useful tips and plenty of racism essay examples to help you write an outstanding paper.

🔖 Secrets of a Powerful Racism Essay

Writing an essay on racism may seem easy at first. However, because racism is such a popular subject in social sciences, politics, and history, your piece needs to be truly powerful to receive a high mark. Here are the best tips to help make your racism essay stand out:

  • Consider the historical causes of racism. Papers on racism often focus on discrimination and equality in modern society. Digging a bit deeper and highlighting the origins of racism will make your essay more impressive. Check academic resources on the subject to see how racism was connected to the slave trade, politics, and social development in Europe. Explore these ideas in your paper to make it more compelling!
  • Show critical thinking. Racism essay titles often focus on the effects of racism on the population. To make your essay more powerful, you will need to discuss the things that are often left out. Think about why racial discrimination is still prevalent in modern society and who benefits from racist policies. This will show your tutor that you understand the topic in great depth.
  • Look for examples of racism in art. One of the reasons as to why racism spread so quickly is because artists and authors supported the narratives of race. If you explore paintings by European artists created in 17-18 centuries, you will find that they often highlighted the differences between black and white people to make the former seem less human. In various literary works, such as Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and Shakespeare’s Othello, racism plays a vital role. In contrast, more recent works of art consider racism from a critical viewpoint. Examining how racism is reflected in the art will help you to earn an excellent mark for your analysis of the subject.
  • Discuss the influences of racism. Of course, one of the key racism essay topics is the impact of racism on black populations in various countries. It is true that discrimination plays an essential role in the lives of black people, and reflecting this in your paper will help you to make it influential. You can discuss various themes here, from police brutality to healthcare access. Support your claims with high-quality data from official sources. If appropriate, you can also show how racism affected your life or the lives of your friends and loved ones.
  • Show the correlation between racism and other social issues. Racism is connected to many different types of discrimination, including sexism and homophobia. This allows you to expand your paper by showing these links and explaining them. For instance, you could write an essay on racism and xenophobia, or find other topics that interest you.

Finally, structure your essay well. Write an outline first to determine the sequence of key points. You can check out a racism essay example on this website to see how other people structure their work.

Racism Thesis Statement, Main Body, & Conclusion

A typical essay should have an introduction, the main body, and a conclusion. Each paragraph of the main body should start with a topic sentence. Here’s what a topic sentence for racism-themed essay can look like:

Racism continues to be a pervasive issue in society, with deep-rooted prejudices and discrimination that impact individuals and communities across the globe.

Don’t forget to include a racism essay thesis statement at the end of your introduction to identify the focus of the paper! Check out these racism thesis statements for inspiration:

Racism is pervasive social problem that manifests in various forms, perpetuating systemic inequalities and marginalizing minority groups. Through an examination of racism’s history and its psychological impact on individuals, it becomes evident that this pressing issue demands collective action for meaningful change.

In your essay’s conclusion, you can simply paraphrase the thesis and add a couple of additional remarks.

These guidelines will help you to ensure that your work is truly outstanding and deserving of a great mark! Be sure to visit our website for more racism example essays, topics, and other useful materials.

These points will help you to ensure that your work on racism is truly influential and receives a great mark! Be sure to visit our website for example papers, essay titles, and other useful materials.

  • Psychological Development: Racism, Affirmative Action and Health Care America is one of the most diverse countries in the world due to the high number of immigrants recorded as from the 17th through the 20th centuries.
  • Why it is Safe to Say that Northrop’s Book Exposes the Roots of Racism in America And, since America is an integral part of Western civilization, the fact that many white Americans continue to be affected by ‘subtle racism’ does not come as a particular surprise.
  • American Indians: Racial Segregation and Discrimination The ideology of segregation was also perpetuated by the leaders such as James Madison and Thomas Jefferson who were of the belief that American Indians were savages who did not have the ability to cope […]
  • Attitude to Racism in Literature The author uses the temple, the caves and the mosque to deliver his knowledge on the tension between the British and the Indians.
  • Slavery, Racism, and the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade The advent of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in the early modern period gives evidence of how old slavery is. In England, for example, the staff was thoroughly Black; hence the appearance of the idea of […]
  • Different Challenges of Racial Discrimination To add on, this paper describes why the vice should be avoided since no one is superior to the other and that the fight against racial discrimination should start from one person and then spread […]
  • Racism in the Penitentiary There are many factors that contribute to racism in prison and in most cases; the same contribute to racism in the free society.
  • Addressing the Racism in Society It is to create order and understanding in the same way that a biologist tries to understand the complexity of the natural world.
  • Racism By Thomas Jackson There is more reaction to the actions of the other races rather than a comprehensive argument of racism and its origin.
  • Contemporary Racism in Australia: the Experience of Aborigines To obtain the racial experiences of the participants, a questionnaire was used to record the in depth experiences of the participants.
  • Racism in the “Crash” It is worthy noting that, all the characters in the film are victims of crashes and none is free of sympathy. The wouldisappearance’ referred to by Graham is that of racism.
  • Have You Experienced Racism in Korea? The situation in Korea is no different from the one in America in regards to the relationship between whites and blacks.
  • Racism in America After the Civil War up to 1900 This paper highlights the abolitionist views on race and change since the civil war to the year 1900 and how they affected the American view on race.
  • Institutionalized Racism From John Brown Raid to Jim Crow Laws This paper provides a historical account of institutionalized racism in the United States from the 1850s through the civil war up to the repeal of Jim Crow laws.
  • Racial Discrimination in America It is noted that the blacks were especially very handy in the farm jobs and generally the American society did not like the immigrants and went to all levels to discriminate the blacks and the […]
  • Australian Identities: Indigenous and Multicultural Australia is one of the many regions in the world that has encountered racism fast hand and this has prompted the government to come up with legislations and policies to curb this menace.
  • Racial Discrimination at the World Bank In addition, leveraging on an employee in a diverse population always end up with a particular race being victimized through work termination as employers tend to match the contact race of an employee to that […]
  • Comparison of Ethnicity and Racism in “Country Lovers” and “The Welcome Table” In both cases, the texts have devoted their concerns to the plight of a black female who is deposed off her meaning within the realms of the society.
  • The Problem of Global Racism in Modern World For instance, the most renowned instance of racism in human history is the issue of slavery where the blacks were regarded as sub-human only fit to be traded as properties and most importantly, to labor […]
  • The Anatomy of Scientific Racism: Racialist Responses to Black Athletic Achievement Miller is of the view that it is the white scholars that are responsible for impeding the success of black athletes and performers.
  • Institutionalized Racism and Sexism In order to control races and maintain white supremacy in the hierarchy system, the dominant groups of the society were to make up lies about people of color that black males are immoral and sexually […]
  • The Civil Rights Movement: Ending Racial Discrimination and Segregation in America Finally, the paper will look at both the positive and negative achievements of the civil rights movements including an assessment of how the rights movement continues to influence the socio-economic and political aspects of the […]
  • Racism in Play “Othello” by William Shakespeare Since Othello is dark-skinned, the society is against his marriage to the daughter of the senator of Venice. In summary, the play Othello is captivating and presents racism as it was.
  • Racism in the American Nation Racism can also be defined as the unfair practice of showing undue favor to a certain class of people and denying the same for other people who equally qualify to receive the same treatment either […]
  • Racial Stereotypes in Movie Industry The character of Tom Hanson in the movie thought he was not racist but at a subconscious level he too was affected by the racial stereotypes just as many of us are unaware of how […]
  • Achebe’s Views on Racism When they went to Africa, the whites found Africans a little too awkward in culture and the fact that they managed to manipulate them in their own continent was a proof enough that their way […]
  • Reducing Racism in the University of Alberta and University of York The aspect of racism in institutions of higher learning is dealt with in its early stages considering that the universities shape the discourse of the society as a major agent of socialization.
  • Racism in the “Dutchman” by Amiri Baraka Generally, one is to keep in mind that Baraka is recognized to be one of the most important representatives of the black community, and the theme of racism in The Dutchman has, therefore, some historical […]
  • The Problem of Racism and Injustice in To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee In the novel, Harper Lee demonstrates her vision of the question of the social inequality with references to the problem of racism in the society based on prejudice and absence of actual principles of tolerance […]
  • Racism as a Central Factor in Representing Asian American History To enlarge on the issue, it should be stressed that “in the telling and retelling of their stories, the elderly immigrants reclaim the authorship of their own history”.
  • Racial Profiling: Discrimination the People of Color The way in which the justice system handled the circumstances behind the death of the black teenager represents a society that is less concerned with the plight of the black minority in the nation.
  • The Policy Status Quo to Prevent Racism in American Schools Racism in the American schools can be observed in many forms which are the different attitudes of teachers to the representatives of minorities or the discriminating attitudes of the classmates in relation to the other […]
  • The Theme of Liberation From Racism in Two Plays by August Wilson Further, the feasibility and relevance of the short stories in the life of Wilson will be well outlined. The discussion will outline the clearer way in which the author could have better presented the theme […]
  • The Concept of Racism For instance, skin color, texture of the hair, as well as shape of the face and body are some of the major determining factors that divide people across the world.
  • Racism in American Schools: A Critical Look at the Modern School Mini-Society According to the recent research on the problem, the instances of racial profiling are still a sad yet obvious part of everyday school reality despite all the attempts to establish the relationships based on equality […]
  • Analysis on Religion, Racism and Family Conflicts He believes in salvation through Jesus and condemnation for non believers The novel enlightens the issue of hypocrisy in the church.
  • Evidence of Racism in the American Schools In addition, experienced teachers have taken advantage of the existence of seniority rules to transfer to schools that are more affluent with students that are perceived as easier to teach.
  • Racism in the USA In the USA, such minorities as African Americans, Latin Americans, and Asian Americans are affected by racism because of their biological differences, for instance skin color, and because of the developed social stereotypes and prejudices […]
  • Racism and Anti-Semitism in the United States: The Issues Which Are Yet to Be Solved Thesis statement: the racist issues are still there despite all the efforts Because of the lack of knowledge on the Jewish and African American culture and the existing prejudices concerning the above-mentioned ethnicities, as well […]
  • The Root Cause of Racism and Ethnic Stratification in the US African Americans form the bulk of ethnic minorities of immigrant origin in the US. For that reason, African Americans are one of the most important ethnic groups in the US.
  • Racism and Segregation in the United States The laws and relationships between the modern day Native People of America and citizens of the United States have not always been the way they are now.
  • Racism and Discrimination: White Privilege Further, they have coined the term “white privilege” to refer to the advantages, benefits, rights, and immunities granted to and enjoyed by white people, which are not available to other people in the community.
  • Why the Philosophy of King is More Effective in Fighting Racism than Malcolm’s? The idea of harmony and respect of all human beings is a result of his Christian foundation as well as the philosophy of Gandhi that he encountered later on in his life.
  • Slavery and Racism: Black Brazilians v. Black Americans Manumission was a common practice in Brazil than in the United States showing that the Masters of the slaves in Brazil were more concerned with the rights of the slaves than those in the United […]
  • Racism, Colonialism and the Emergence of Third World According to Strong the superior race is the Anglo-Saxon, a race formed by the interbreeding of the Americans and the English people.
  • Racism in U.S. Criminal Justice System Despite the small number of African American in comparison to the whites in the United States, the number of blacks imprisoned is very high.
  • Promotion of Racism in US Through Sports The dominant minor groups include the Indians, the African Americans, and the Hispanics among others. Contemporarily, the minor groups and other human rights groups are fighting to end the reign of racism in the US.
  • The Role of Racism in American Art During the 1930s and 1940s The system of chattel slavery established at the very outset generated intense debates for over two hundred years even in the framing of the major founding documents of the nation.
  • Racial or Ethnical Discrimination Different groups of people remain somewhat hostile to others, as this is a part of the human perception. According to these sociological and psychological perspectives discrimination and prejudice are indispensible parts of the human society […]
  • Discrimination, Prejudice and Racism in the United States Members of the society should be allowed access to equal opportunities, for example, education, medical care, sports and in many other spheres.
  • Racism Is Not All About Individual Attitude Solomos.argues that the Report has a vague definition of what constitutes institutional racism as “the definition reflects the frustrations of activists involved in the Stephen Lawrence campaign with the everyday racism and plain ignorance that […]
  • Maya Angelou: Racism and Segregation in “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings” An example is that, as she fails to recite her poem in church, she notes that her dress is probably a handout from a white woman.
  • The Historical Roots of Racism in Australia In the new forms of racism, people who do not belong to the majority culture are looked at as aliens and treated with some disdain.
  • English Racism During World Cup Written by Jon Garland in 2004, the Same Old Story Englishness, the Tabloid Press and the 2002 Football World Cup, explores issues surrounding the world cup of 2006, which coincided with the 50th anniversary of […]
  • Comparison of Racism in the United States and South Africa The major forms of racism that are evident in the country are discrimination, and marginalization, with the African-American, Latin- American and the Muslims being the victims: the dominant people are the Native American who was […]
  • Racism and Male Dominance in Education This concept as advanced by George Die; is that it refers to the ideological and symbolic significance of groups in the images seen by the dominant groups.
  • The Issue of Racial Segregation in the United States Despite the fact that United States is one of the economically stable countries in the world, its historical roots of racism was based on slavery and genocide.
  • Racism in Native Son He is drawn to the whiteness and buys into the notion that their life is the best. Mary is the character that the author uses to show the repercussions of a crime between Black and […]
  • Society Moral Standards: Racism and Its Harmful Effects The belief in the superiority of one race over the other is normally used to justify the unequal treatment of different races.
  • Racial Discrimination Effects in Coming of Age in Mississippi by Anne Moody The vivid description of events from the beginning gives the reader a clear picture of a girl who was born in problems and in spite of her intelligence she always became a victim of circumstances.
  • Current Day Racism vs. Traditional Day Racism While formally agreeing with the validity of socio-political policies, based upon the assumption of people’s equality, regardless of what happened to be the particulars of their racial affiliation, symbolic racists nevertheless do subconsciously believe in […]
  • Globalization and Racism Although racism is on the decline, the lifestyle of the minority groups in the United States of America is below standards.
  • Is Racism and Anti-Semitism Still a Problem in the United States? Historians indicate that racism was a core foundation of the United States of America as a white society and it resulted in the destruction of the native Indian population and the usage of Black slaves […]
  • The ‘Peopling’ Process of Australia Since 1788 With Influence of Racism Initially, at the arrival of the British, the aborigines suffered displacement from the productive parts of the country to the non-productive regions.
  • Racial Discrimination in the US Due to the large number of members of the communities in the US, competition for the scarce resources has been stiff.
  • The Roma Problems and the Causes of Racism 3 Is it any wonder that the insular, superstitious, monolithically Catholic or Orthodox communities of Europe and Eastern Europe, eager to recapture the civil order and peace of the golden age of the Roman Empire […]
  • Racism in Family Therapy by Laszloffy and Hardy The authors of the article are sure that the awareness of the type of the racism people suffer from may help in solving some problems concerning discrimination.
  • Black or White Racism When one listens to the “Black or White” song, it is clear that Michael Jackson is not expecting his audience to be either white or black people to listen and learn the message he is […]
  • Ethnicity: Oppression and Racism Some of the instances that can be compared to the bars of the cage include scenarios where the people who are oppressed assume that nothing is happening, and participate in their oppression either directly or […]
  • Social Construction of “Race” and “Racism” and Its Relationship to Democratic Racism in Canada This is ideology withdraws the ideas of multiculturalism in Canada due to the lack of social and political support to alter structures and organizations of social institutions, including justice system, education, and police.
  • Democratic Racism in Canada The Canadian residents and institutions function on the basis of collective denial of the existing racial confrontation, which admits the presence of democratic racism.
  • Relationship Between Institutionalized Racism and Marxism The owners of the means of production utilize their power to subjugate and dominate the inferior class, which is the minority race in the US.
  • Young Australians and Racism Most of the migrants into the country continue to face higher chances of experiencing a racist incident in the country. From the very start, most of the migrants into the country will always find it […]
  • How Fake News Use Satire as a Medium to Address Issues on Racism? The show offers a critique of authority by challenging the decision that was made by the jury. The decision that was finally made by the jury in itself is also a mockery of justice, and […]
  • Multicultural Psychology: Cultural Identity and Racism It is a branch of psychology that tries to comprehend and represent the psychology of different people, groups and organizations adequately for the purpose of equal treatment due to the fact that there is a […]
  • Psychological Impact: Stereotyping, Prejudice and Racism Considering stereotyping, prejudice, and racism as the part of a psychological development, distress, and behavior on a culturally diverse individual, the changes in human being are going to be discussed under the influence of these […]
  • The Racial Discrimination Among Employers The following discussion ascertains the statistical findings of the aforementioned researchers on the inconsistency of employment opportunities, between the African-Americans and the whites.
  • ‘Animal Rights’ Activists and Racism Nevertheless, while being thoroughly comfortable with the idea that it is fully appropriate to exploit the ‘eatable’ representatives of the animal kingdom, the ‘animal rights’ activists deny the same right to those, who due to […]
  • Racism and Ethnicity in United States Indeed, most of the people living in the country can trace their origins from the various races of the world. The entrance of new races into the country led to the assimilation of the predecessor […]
  • Racism, Stigma, and Eexism – Sociology The sense of belonging to a community is paramount to the achievement of national and international cohesion and integration. The subject of sociology is wide and can be discussed from different angles.
  • In Australia, Are Cultural Rights a Form of Racism? The “superior” group of people perceives their culture, way of life, color, and language to be over and above others and expect the inferior group to emulate them if they are to be accepted in […]
  • Understanding Race and Racism The worst forms of homophobia are the stigmatization and isolation or exclusion of homosexuals and lesbians from the society. The defining criteria in the formation of the two groups include race, ethnicity and skin color.
  • Racial Discrimination in Organizations It is the work of the management to provide a neutral working environment within any organization, as well as ensure equal treatment and opportunities for all employees regardless of their race.
  • How Different Young Australians Experience Racism? Though racism is a global dilemma, young Australians are particularly faced with this problem due to the diverse nature of Australia’s population. The effects of racism are not limited to the mental health of the […]
  • How Obama’s First Election Has Been Affected by Racism? The election of Barack Obama as the 44th President of the United States of America heralded the beginning of a new chapter in the country.
  • Problems of Environmental Racism This is one of the arguments that can be put forward. This is one of the main similarities that can be identified.
  • “Globalization and the Unleashing of New Racism: an Introduction” by Macedo and Gounari Nevertheless, it is probably relevant to resort to the plight of the blacks, given that they have been historically oppressed due to racism and continue to face the same racist treatment from their “masters”.
  • Adolf Hitler: From Patriotism to Racism He was also forced to live and work in the city and it is was the cultural and social shock that he experienced as he transferred from the rural to the urban that changed the […]
  • Imperialism and Racism in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness He lauds “the book’s anti-imperialist theme…a stinging indictment of the callous and genocidal treatment of the Africans, and other nationals, at the hands of the British and the European imperial powers,” and also details the […]
  • Obama’s First Election and Racism For African Americans, the march of Barack Obama towards the American presidency was the culmination of a long journey that started in the farmlands of the South during times of slavery.
  • Racism Against Native Americans He uses a number of racial and cultural abuses that are used in a derogatory way to refer to people of other cultures, races, sexual orientation and religious affiliations to make the point that the […]
  • Racism: Impact on Minorities in American Society Takaki suggests that reminding people of their diversity and enabling them to understand the positive side of different cultures is the way forward in the journey to eradicate racism in the US.
  • The Challenges of Racism Influential for the Life of Frederick Douglass and Barack Obama However, Douglass became an influential anti-slavery and human rights activist because in the early childhood he learnt the power of education to fight inequality with the help of his literary and public speaking skills to […]
  • Racist America: Current Realities and Future Prospects They had school buses to take the children to school and schools were many, thus reducing the distance that children had to walk to school.
  • Racism in American Schools To support the success made by the program, George Miller, a strong NCLB proponent, believes that the biggest impact of the program is addressing the thorny issue of the achievement gap between poor and middle-class […]
  • Humanism, Racism, and Speciesism Cultural imposition within the context of the Spanish, British and other members of the European continent came in the form of the complete erasure of cultural predilections, values, behaviors and even methods of speaking of […]
  • Racism and Segregation in American History The whole population of residents of North America was disgracefully and unreasonably disvalued in their traditions and beliefs, and people were forced to move out from the land that belonged to them in the first […]
  • Racism as a Case of Ignorance and Prejudice Racism refers to the act of ascribing certain traits and stereotypes to individuals based on their race. According to a report titled Race for Equality, the National Union of Students revealed that 1 in 6 […]
  • Conflict and Racial Hostility Using the conflict lens to assess the situation in Jena, it is evident that the white students along with the white power structure in the city and the school are in a privileged position of […]
  • Racism and Sexism Ethical Problem According to Reich, many of the proponents and antagonists of racism are merely playing their part in a bigger game that they are unaware of and the inherent nature of the capitalist system will always […]
  • Racial Discrimination at the Workplace The main change that is discussed in this essay is the introduction of legislation that will see the creation of a special authority that is aimed at guaranteeing the freedom of all workers at the […]
  • Racism in Michigan University The majority opinion was that a state law school might use racial preference in student admissions because the diversity of the student body is a necessary state interest.
  • Racism and Education in the United States An examination of the current system of education based on the experiences of the researcher reveals three distinct factors: that there is discrimination even though the system says there is not, opportunities for social advancement […]
  • Intersectionality and Gendered Racism The intersectionality concept enables people to understand the different experiences with regard to the social categories of a person. Intersectionality brings in revolution of the extent in which gender racism affects women, and the rational […]
  • Racism in “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” by Mark Twain The character of Pap is used to advance the theme of racism in the book. In the closing chapters of the book, Huck and Tom come to the realization that Jim is not property but […]
  • Racism Issue and Solutions This article offers some of the best ideas towards dealing with racism in our society. The article “Dealing with Institutional Racism on Campus: Initiating Difficult Dialogues and Social Justice Advocacy Interventions” explains how different institutions […]
  • Racism in Music: “(What Did I Do to Be So) Black and Blue” The extreme popularity of the song among the black population can be explained with references to the fact that Armstrong changed the original lyrics to accentuate the social meaning of the composition and elaborated the […]
  • Racial Discrimination Against Asian American Students According to Chan, the issue of racial discrimination has persisted in the United States for years despite the efforts that have been put in place by several people and groups to fight it.
  • Educational Attainment and Racial Discrimination In addition, this report will be useful to educational stakeholders in their quest for finding a lasting solution to the issues of educational attainment and racial discrimination. All these factors can be traced back to […]
  • Rodney King’s Case of Racial Discrimination King was brutally beaten by officers belonging to the Los Angeles Police Department after a car chase that resulted in a court case in which the officers involved were charged and acquitted for assault. The […]
  • Ethnicity and Issues of Racism in the United States The core of the notion of colorblind racism is that even in the post-Civil Rights era, wouldiffering’ realities still apply to both the majority and the minority races in the United States.
  • Racism as a Reality of Modern American Society Such a shift of personality was designed to emphasize the drastic diversity of the way society treated white people and people of color.
  • Racism in USA: Virginia Laws on Slavery The provided laws emphasize the differences between the English, the Indigenous people, and the African slaves juxtaposing the former to the others as superior.
  • Racism Manifests in the Contemporary Society The present paper reviews two major works that deal with the issue of racism to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the arguments presented.
  • King’s and Obama’s Views on Racism in America If this assertion is made today, Barack Obama will disagree with MLK’s statement, as seen in the excerpt to the speech entitled A Perfect Union: The profound mistake of Reverend Wright’s sermons is not that […]
  • Racial Discrimination in Social Institutions The problem though with this particular concept that was being espoused was that after digging a little deeper into the article and examining the context of the situation, it can be seen that the development […]
  • Racism in the USA: Causes, Consequences and Solutions Starting with the most embarrassing pages of the American history compose of slavery, and moving to the Civil War, Jim Crow’s segregation laws, followed with race bus protests and resulting in desegregation, racism have been […]
  • Racial Discrimination and Its Effects on Employees Racial discrimination will lead to reduced commitment to the organization by the affected employee. Due to racial discrimination, the chances of employees from minority groups advancing in the organization are reduced.
  • Asian American Communities and Racism in the USA Thinking about Asian community, Americans do not think about people, the situation discussed in the article and the case considered in the video are the specific examples which led the Asian community to riots.
  • Jerrell Shofner’s Views on the Racial Discrimination Thus, the illegal treatment of the colored workers, their oppression, and the issue of the forced labor in relation to the absence of payments, the developed system of fines, the impossibility to break the agreement, […]
  • Racism and Discrimination as Social Constructs This is because the concept of race has a negative connotation in the society. For example in some societies, especially the western society; the concept of race implies un-fair treatment and discrimination of a particular […]
  • English Literature Impact on Racism Among Africans Examining the topic of race and racism in language has not been a grave issue in the recent years, particularly because most of the discourse experts are whites.
  • The Voting Rights Act and Racial Discrimination However, the very nature of a constitution as a legal document implies that its main aim is to outline the most important underlying concepts and principles that the society should be guided by.
  • Does Racism and Discrimination Still Exist Today? This fact explains why racism and discrimination are inseparable in many parts of the globe. Sex discrimination continues to affect the goals and expectations of many women in our society.
  • Darwin’s and Galton’s Scientific Racism Overall, it is possible to say that the ideas of these people were largely based on the misuse of scientific methods and lack of anthropological knowledge.
  • The Effects of Racism on Learners Academic Outcomes Many studies that have been conducted to investigate the causes of poor performance outcomes among African-American students, especially those who come from poor economic backgrounds.
  • Racism in the Setting the Rising Sun Postcard Analyzing the postcard entitled: “Setting the Rising Sun” requires background information on racism and the significance of the surprise attack of Pearl Harbor on the general consciousness of the American people. It is easy to […]
  • Racism: Theoretical Perspectives and Research Methods The few cases of racism in the current generation occur because of the desire to have the best at the expense of feeble people.
  • Racism in Film “Savages” by Oliver Stone It is necessary to mention that the Chicano community had to deal with numerous issues such as racism and discrimination over the years, and the way the people are portrayed in all types of media […]
  • Racism and Discrimination in Religion Context It is based on these passages, as well as numerous others, that the stance of the church has been one of tolerance of differences, the celebration of the unique and the acceptance that we are […]
  • Does Unconscious Racism Exist by Lincoln Quillian The country, however, has made tremendous progress towards stemming from the vice, which culminated in the election of Barrack Obama as the 44th President of the United States. In the article, the author reviews some […]
  • Social and Cultural Diversity and Racism The best and experienced teachers were always taken to the schools of the whites, while on the other hand, the black kids had the most inexperienced teachers.
  • “Nigger” as a Racially Directed Slur The word ‘nigger’ is derived from a Portuguese word ‘negro’ that is used to refer to black. On the other hand, the use of the N-word today is not connected to slavery, which happened many […]
  • Racism History in No Name on the Street by Baldwin It is believed that the publication of the book was inspired by the death of Martin Luther King and in the first part of it the author makes a short insight into his personal reaction […]
  • Racism Elimination and Sociological Strategies The analysis of sociological theory exploring racism and sociological strategies for combating it helps to understand that sociology plays an important role in reducing the manifestations of racism in communities across the globe.
  • Racism in “To Kill Mocking Bird” by Harper Lee The family is transformed from poverty to wealth, but it remains one of the few white families ready to accommodate and recognize the black people as a part of the society, while other Whites oppress […]
  • Racism in “Passing” and “Uncle Tom’s Children” Novels Therefore, the evolution of the society gave rise to the reconsideration of the approach to racism and promoted the increase of the level of consciousness of the discriminated people.
  • Racism in Media and Objective Coverage Sanders, for example, indicates that the portrayal of black people in the media in the 1980s and 1990s was “demonizing,” and the outcomes of such demonization included the negative attitude to the people of color […]
  • Racial Discrimination in Employment in the US Another problem is that some individuals believe that it is necessary to make sure that additional measures of safety are taken in case people of color are present in the workplace.
  • Colin Powell and the Fight Against Structural Racism When donating his uniform to the National Museum of African American History and Culture, Powell stated that the museum is a “treasure” the significance of which extends borders of the country.
  • Obama’s Presidency and Racism in the USA Irrespective of this criticism and even disappointment, it is possible to note that the presidency of Barak Obama is an important milestone that can eventually lead to the era of true racial justice in the […]
  • Racism in Trump’s and Clinton’s Campaigns The Catholic Church stated that racism should not be a part of our social consciousness since it promotes ideas and concepts that are against the teachings of brotherhood and solidarity that church leaders actively promote.
  • Racism and Society: Different Perspectives In the case of racism, there is a bias in more than one way that leads to the disenfranchisement of the disadvantaged groups.
  • Racism in “The Invisible Man” by Ralph Ellison The “Battle Royal” chapter in the novel brings rather controversial reactions and thoughts, due to its being a blend of relief for the main character, the shame for the abusive white society, and the pain […]
  • Racism and Prejudice: “Gone With the Wind“ and “The Help” The current paper will discuss the issues of racism and prejudice in two brilliant pieces of art: Kathryn Stockett’s novel “The Help” and the movie “Gone with the Wind” directed by Victor Fleming.
  • Racism in Ralph Ellison’s “Battle Royal” The main focus of the story is the problem of racism, particularly to African-American people in the United States. In terms of other issues that “Battle Royal” demonstrates and that are further developed in the […]
  • Racism as the Epitome of Moral Bankruptcy The phenomenon of racism does not stand any criticism as the principle of a social hierarchy form all ethical frameworks, including Kantian and Utilitarian philosophies since it undermines the very basis of inherent worth as […]
  • The Problem of Racism and Injustice In particular, I agree with his determination to change the situation and to eradicate racism, however, I partially agree with his opinion about faith and making what he thinks is right, and, finally, I do […]
  • Baldwin’s and Coates’ Anti-Racism Communication James Baldwin, in his Notes of a Native Son, writes about his experiences with people from different parts of America and the world and investigates the ideas of hatred and violence.
  • Racism in the United States: Before and After World War II The U.S.government went from supporting racism against African Americans in the New Deal era to fight against racism by the 1960s because of World War II.
  • The Problem of Racism in Brazilian Football Skidmore describes it as the relationships that could result into conflict and consciousness and determination of the people’s status in a community or a particular group. In football, racism damages pride of the players and […]
  • Impact of Racism as a Social Determinant of Health In the context of the direct and indirect impact of racism as one of the contributors to shaping social determinants of health, it has been identified that health outcomes of Aboriginal Australians were directly influenced […]
  • Racism Against Roma and Afro-American People The government proclaimed wars on drugs and criminality, which eventually lead to the incarceration of people of color. These people were unable to get a well-paid job and had to seek other income sources because […]
  • Kansas State University Community’s Racism Issues It is good that the management of the institution moved with speed and expelled the students as a way of reassuring the public that racism is not tolerated in this institution.
  • Racism in Rankine’s “Citizen” and Whitehead’s “The Underground Railroad” Both of them focused on similar problems but used entirely different methods to deliver their ideas while having clear benefits and disadvantages of their choices.*One the one hand, novels like Citizen help build an emotional […]
  • Racism, Privilege and Stereotyping Concepts A privilege can be described as an unearned benefit or a set of those, which one group of people is given with, and the other one is deprived of.
  • White Privilege and Racism in American Society It is also possible not to notice that White people are widely covered in the media, and the color of their skin is viewed as “normal” and “usual”.
  • Racial Bias and Discrimination in Law Enforcement After reading the letter to the US Department of Justice and Civil Rights Division, in particular, the findings from the investigation of the Maricopa County Sheriff’s Office are defined as compelling and credible sources of […]
  • Racism in The Paper Menagerie Essay Also, it is a tragedy of the society the influence of which can be too devastating to heal.”The Paper Menagerie” teaches the audience how ungrateful and cruel a child can become under the pressure of […]
  • Racial Discrimination in Employment This discussion focuses on the issues surrounding the problem of racial discrimination in the workplace. The main law that illegalizes this kind of discrimination is Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
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  • Western Scientific Approach as a Cause of Racism
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  • Temporary Aid Program: Racism in Child Welfare
  • Popular Music at the Times of Racism and Segregation
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  • The Problem of Explicit Racism
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  • Racial Discrimination Through the Cosmetics Industry
  • The Black People: Sexuality and Racial Discrimination
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  • A Cause-and-Effect Analysis of Racism and Discrimination
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  • The Unethical Practice of Racism in a Doctor’s Case
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  • How Has Racism Changed Throughout History, Starting From the Emancipation Proclamation to Today?
  • Do Racism and Discrimination Still Exist Today?
  • How Did Ideas of Black Stereotypes and Racism Become Embedded in American Culture?
  • How Does Racism Affect the Way of a Caste Like System?
  • What Connection Is Between Globalization and Racism?
  • Why Do Exist Discrimination and Racism?
  • How Do Educational Institutions Perpetuate Racism, Sexism, and Patriarchy?
  • How Do Racism and Exclusion Shape the Social Geography of Race and Ethnicity?
  • What Ways Does Cultural Racism Manifest Itself?
  • How the Media Maintains Racism?
  • Why Slavery and Racism Issues Still Affect America Today?
  • How Racism and Ethnicity Affect the Sector of Education?
  • How Has Racism Impacted Immigrant Families and Children?
  • When Did Racism Begin?
  • Racism: Why It’s Bad for Society and the Greater Health Issues It Creates?
  • How Have Evolutionary Ideas Shaped Racism?
  • Why Is Racism Bad for Society?
  • What Effect Does Color-Blind Racism Have On Minorities in Society Today?
  • How Does Sports Helped Diminish Racism?
  • How Does Both Individual and Institutional Racism Impact Service Provision and the Experiences of People Receiving Services?
  • Did Slavery Cause Racism?
  • When You Think About Racism, What Do You Think About?
  • What Does Racism Mean?
  • Does Affirmative Action Solve Racism?
  • Did Racism Precede Slavery?
  • How Does Racism Affect Society?
  • Does Racism Still Occur Today and Why People Can’t a Change?
  • Between Compassion and Racism: How the Biopolitics of Neoliberal Welfare Turns Citizens Into Affective ‘Idiots’?
  • Does Racism Play a Role in Health Inequities?
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racism research paper topics

Collective Action and Black Lives Matter

A 2017 review of recent social science research on Black Lives Matter outlined the movement’s motivations and growth but also cautioned that failure to achieve its goals could undermine support for it.

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Research Topic: Racism and Discrimination

Podcast: Evan Auguste and Steven Kasparek examine how psychology has contributed to anti-Blackness within psychological research, criminal justice, and mental health, and what scientists and practitioners can do to interrupt the criminalization of Blackness and redefine psychology’s relationship with justice.

racism research paper topics

Psychology’s Role in the Criminalization of Blackness

During the Inclusivity Spotlight discussion at the 2022 APS Annual Convention, three social scientists who are thought leaders in the area of diversity, equity, and inclusion in higher education shared research-based perspectives on and potential solutions to bias in the graduate admissions process.

racism research paper topics

Reducing Biases in the Graduate School Admissions Process

A recent study reveals how organizational-level biases affect how patients and even providers are viewed—and in ways that can produce racial and ethnic inequities. 

racism research paper topics

The Dangers of “Bureaucra-think”: Research Demonstrates Structural Bias and Racism in Mental Health Organizations

Pierce Ekstrom discusses new research on the relationship between countywide attitudes toward race and local policing.

racism research paper topics

Traffic Stops and Race: Police Conduct May Bend to Local Biases

Jennifer L. Eberhardt and Jennifer A. Richeson explore the persistent mythology of racial progress--a prevailing narrative that progress toward racial equality is steadily, linearly, naturally, and automatically getting better across time.

THE MAGNITUDE OF OUR MYTHOLOGY

The Magnitude of Our Mythology

On May 21, APS convened a panel of experts on policing and racism. Here is a video and transcript of that event.

racism research paper topics

Expert Panel: Policing and Racism, Insights from Psychological Science

We celebrate Black History Month 2022 with a collection of flash talks from the 2021 Virtual Convention that discuss race, anti-racist behaviors, and more.

racism research paper topics

Video: Recognizing Black History Month With Psychological Science 

Summary and video of APS Expert Panel on the Psychological Science of Racism.

racism research paper topics

The Psychological Science of Racism: Expert Panel

Scholars at the 2021 APS Virtual Convention set the table for a more welcoming and inclusive field.

racism research paper topics

Reducing Race and Other Disparities in and Through Psychological Research

A conversation between Jennifer L. Eberhardt and Linda R. Tropp on the links between intergroup contact and racial and ethnic relations.

racism research paper topics

The Contact Conundrum: Reducing Conflict Through Intergroup Contact

Research finds that the intersecting roles of gender and race combine in unique ways to feed into simple stereotypes that can contribute to complex patterns of discrimination.

racism research paper topics

Hired, Fired, or Stopped by Police: The Discriminatory Stew of Intersectionality and Stereotypes

While the COVID-19 pandemic may be classified as a natural disaster, the socioeconomic conditions that have made communities of color disproportionately vulnerable to the virus are socially constructed. Psychological scientists explore race, and racial health disparities, as a process.

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A Medical Masquerade: COVID-19 and Racial Disparities in Health

An effort underway by the government of the District of Columbia demonstrates how acts as simple as redesigning municipal forms can make government more equitable for all residents.

racism research paper topics

Addressing Racial Equity Through Human-Centered Design

Researchers closely examine the racial dimensions of what they consider to be top-tier cognitive, developmental, and social psychology journals.

racism research paper topics

Psychological Research: Racial Biases in the Peer-review and Publishing Enterprise

A look at several researchers who have studied racism in recent years. Collectively, they address the nature of racism and the social processes that maintain it; examine the issues of structural and institutional racism; explore the consequences of various forms of racism; and suggest possible paths of action to combat racism.

racism research paper topics

Racism: Further Considerations from Psychological Science

APS's partners at SAGE Publishing provide a range of resources based on social and behavioral science for researchers, instructors, students, policymakers to educate, inform, research, and learn.

racism research paper topics

SAGE Resources on Structural Racism and Police Violence

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racism research paper topics

New Small Grant Category Supports Antiracist Curricula

Interracial contact with other practitioners during medical school may help reduce physicians’ racial bias, improving treatment outcomes for patients.

racism research paper topics

Interracial Contact During Medical School Predicts Less Racial Bias

The implied disapproval that accompanies being tolerated may exact a toll on individual well-being.

racism research paper topics

Being ‘Merely Tolerated’ May Put Minority Members at Risk

Since its debut in 1998, an online test has allowed people to discover prejudices that lurk beneath their awareness — attitudes that researchers wouldn’t be able to identify through participant self-reports. The Observer examines the findings generated by the Implicit Association Test over the past 20 years.

racism research paper topics

The Bias Beneath: Two Decades of Measuring Implicit Associations

Preschool-aged children can learn bias even through nonverbal signals displayed by adults, such as a condescending tone of voice or a disapproving look.

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Children Can ‘Catch’ Social Bias Through Nonverbal Signals Expressed by Adults

Personal contact increases psychological investment in equality by making people more empathetic, increasing personal relevance, and humanizing those in other ethnic groups.

racism research paper topics

How to Get People to Care About Inequality

Data collected from 2004 to 2016 show that Americans’ attitudes toward certain social groups are becoming less biased over time.

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Implicit Attitudes Can Change Over the Long Term

Research shows that White people are more likely to perceive a Black person as a truth-teller compared with a White person, although their spontaneous behavior indicates the reverse bias.

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White People Show Race Bias When Judging Deception

Simply interacting with someone with a racial bias could cause one to 'catch' that anxiety and feel secondhand stress.

racism research paper topics

Contagious Anxiety in Inter-Race Interactions

Research suggests that people who live in communities with high levels of overt racism are more likely to die from heart disease and other circulatory diseases.

racism research paper topics

Heart Trouble: Exploring Links Between Racism and Health Risks

While certain expressions of racism are absent from our world today, you don’t have to look very hard to know that more subtle forms of racism persist, in schools and workplaces and elsewhere.

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Racism’s Cognitive Toll: Subtle discrimination is more taxing on the brain

Psychological scientists describe research on the enduring and often hidden presence of racism at both the interpersonal and societal levels in the June issue of Current Directions in Psychological Science .

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Science of Racism Examined in New Set of Research Articles

Scientists from around the world, including APS Board Member Stacey Sinclair, discuss their research on the origins, varieties, and consequences of loneliness.

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Variations of Loneliness Include Implicit Anti-Black Bias

Rapidly expanding racial and ethnic diversity in many industralized countries has sparked a new wave of research on the ways people react to changes in their power and social status.

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When the Majority Becomes the Minority

Okie Nwakanma received first prize for her upcoming research on how Black women use emotional-approach coping to deal with gendered racism.

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Pitch Perfect: Exploring Black Women’s Emotional Coping Strategies

African American adolescents who experience high levels of racial discrimination show cellular wear and tear, according to new research published in Psychological Science.

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Family Support Buffers the Physiological Effects of Racial Discrimination

An analysis of audio recordings from 380 traffic stops showed distinctive differences in the language that police used when speaking to White drivers compared to African American drivers.

racism research paper topics

Police Language in Traffic Stops Shows Hidden Bias

Whites living in areas where they are less exposed to people of other races have a harder time categorizing mixed-race individuals than do Whites with greater interracial exposure, a condition that is associated with greater

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Where We Live Affects Our Bias Against Mixed-Race Individuals

If you're trying to end racism, it's not enough to get people to understand that racism is still a problem. You also have to make them feel like they can do something about it, according to a study published in Psychological Science .

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Motivation to End Racism Relies on ‘Yes We Can’ Approach

Commonly observed differences in how groups perceive racism may be explained by ignorance about -- and even denial of -- the extent of racism over the course of history, a psychology study suggests.

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Claims of “Post-Racial” Society and Other Denials of Racism May Reflect Ignorance of History

Racial stereotypes have been shown to have subtle and unintended consequences on how we treat members of different race groups. According to new research published in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological

Implicit Race Bias Increases the Differences in the Neural Representations of Black and White Faces

Psychological science on the effects of prejudice, and how to counter these beliefs.

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Bias and Stigma

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Racism as a Public Health Crisis

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Racism is a system of structuring opportunity and assigning value based on the social interpretation of how one looks. It unfairly disadvantages some individuals and communities, unfairly advantages others, and saps the strength of the whole society through the waste of human resources. Racial inequality is a ...

Keywords : Racism, Discrimination, Health Disparity, Race, Social Determinants, Inequity

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40+ Argumentative Essay Topics on Racism Worth Exploring

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by  Antony W

April 21, 2023

Argumentative Essay Topics on Racism

The first step to write an essay on racism is to select the right topic to explore.

You then have to take a stance based on your research and use evidence to defend your position.

Even in a sensitive issue of racial discrimination, you have to consider the counterarguments highly likely to arise and address them accordingly. 

The goal of this list post is to give you some topic ideas that you can consider and explore.   We’ve put together 30+ topic ideas, so it should be easy to find an interesting issue to explore.

What is Racism?  

Racism is the conviction that we can credit capacities and qualities to individuals based on their race, color, ethnicity, or national origin. It can take the form of prejudice, hatred, and discrimination, and it can happen in any place and at any time.

Racism goes beyond the act of harassment and abuse. It stretches further to violence, intimidation, and exclusion from important group activities.

This act of judgment, prejudice, and discrimination easily reveal itself in the way we interact with people and our attitude towards them.

Some forms of racism , like looking at a person’s place of origin through a list of job applications, may not be obvious, but they play a part in preventing people or particular group from enjoying the dignity and equality of the benefits of life simply because they are different.

Argumentative Essay Topics on Racism  

  • Is racism a type of mental illness in the modern society?
  • Barrack Obama’s legacy hasn’t helped to improve the situation of racism in the United States of America
  • The women’s movement of the 1960s did NOT unite black and white women
  • Will racism eventually disappear on its own?
  • Is there a cure for racism?
  • There’s no sufficient evidence to prove that Mexicans are racists
  • Is the difference in skin color the cause of racism in the western world?
  • Racism isn’t in everyone’s heart
  • Racism is a toxic global disease
  • Will the human race ever overcome racial prejudice and discrimination?
  • Can a racist be equally cruel?
  • Should racism be a criminal offense punishable by death without the possibility of parole?
  • Are racists more principled than those who are not?
  • Can poor upbringing cause a person to become a racist?
  • Is it a crime if you’re a racist?
  • Can racism lead to another World War?
  • The government can’t stop people from being racists
  • Cultural diversity can cure racism
  • All racists in the world have psychological problems and therefore need medical attention
  • Can the government put effective measures in place to stop its citizens from promoting racism?
  • Can a racist president rule a country better than a president who is not a racist?
  • Should white and black people have equal rights?
  • Can cultural diversity breed racism?
  • Is racism a bigger threat to the human race?
  • Racism is common among adults than it is among children
  • Should white people enjoy more human rights than black people should?
  • Is the disparity in the healthcare system a form of racial discrimination?
  • Racial discrimination is a common thing in the United States of America
  • Film industries should be regulated to help mitigate racism
  • Disney movies should be banned for promoting racism
  • Should schools teach students to stand against racism?
  • Should parents punish their children for manifesting racist traits?
  • Is racism the root of all evil?
  • Can dialogue resolve the issue of racism?
  • Is the seed of racism sown in our children during childhood?
  • Do anti-racist movements help to unite people of different colors and race to fight racism?
  • Do religious doctrines promote racism?
  • There are no psychological health risks associated with racism
  • Can movements such as Black Lives Matter stop racism in America?
  • Do anti-racist movements help people to improve their self-esteem?
  • Racism is against religious beliefs
  • Can teaching children to treat each other equally help to promote an anti-racist world?

We understand that racism is such a controversial topic. However, it’s equally an interesting area to explore. If you wish to write an essay on racism but you have no idea where to start, you can pay for argumentative essay from Help for Assessment to do some custom writing for you.

If you hire Help for Assessment, our team will choose the most suitable topic based on your preference. In addition to conducting extensive research, we’ll choose a stance we can defend, and use strong evidence to demonstrate why your view on the subject is right. Get up to 15% discount here .

Is it Easy to Write an Argumentative Essay on Racism?

Racism is traumatic and a bad idea, and there must never be an excuse for it.

As controversial as the issue is, you can write an essay that explores this aspect and bring out a clear picture on why racism is such a bad idea altogether.

With that said, here’s a list of some argumentative essay topics on racism that you might want to consider for your next essay assignment.

How to Make Your Argumentative Essay on Racism Great 

The following are some useful writing tips that you can use to make your argumentative essay on racism stand out:

Examine the Historical Causes of Racism 

Try to dig deeper into the topic of racism by looking at historical causes of racial discrimination and prejudices.

Look at a number of credible sources to explore the connection between racism and salve trade, social developments, and politics.

Include these highlights in your essay to demonstrate that you researched widely on the topic before making your conclusion.

Demonstrate Critical Thinking 

Go the extra mile and talk about the things you believe people often leave out when writing argumentative essays on racism.

Consider why racial discrimination and prejudices are common in the society, their negative effects, and who benefits the most from racial policies.

Adding such information not only shows your instructor that you did your research but also understand the topic better.

Show the Relationship between Racism and Social Issues 

There’s no denying that racism has a strong connection with many types of social issues, including homophobia, slavery, and sexism.

Including these links, where necessary, and explaining them in details can make your essay more comprehensive and therefore worth reading.

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About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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List of great argumentative essay topics on racism [updated], bob cardens.

  • August 1, 2022
  • Essay Topics and Ideas , Samples

The social issues that we face today are more complex and multifaceted than ever before. And, as a result, there are a lot of great argumentative essay topics on racism. Here are just a few examples:

What You'll Learn

Argumentative Essay Topics on Racism

  • How has institutional Racism affected the history of minority groups in the US? –
  • Should we consider Islamophobia racism?
  • Racism: Can we refer to it as a mental disorder?
  • Race: Does it serve any purpose in modern society?
  • How Racism impact the way Chinese American has been viewed.
  • Irishness: Should it be considered a show of racism?
  • Comic books: Can we consider it racist against black people?
  • How does Racism impact the way we view immigration? Description: In recent years, views of immigration in the United States have shifted with many Americans perceiving immigrants as a source of national prosperity, rather than an eminent burden
  • Racism Against Hispanics in America Description: One of the main challenges facing American society is racism. While the country is a multicultural society comprising of individuals from different cultures around the world, minority groups often face discrimination in the form hate crimes and racist comments. Although the issue of racism affects all minorities.
  • African American males are 10 times more likely to resist arrest than Caucasian males, is this due to them essentially resisting police brutality, or are other factors at play?
  • What is the driving force of racial police brutality?
  • Is defunding the police an effective way to end racial police brutality?
  • Racism. Discrimination and racial inequality. Essay Description: Today, everyone wants to reap the benefits of a diverse workforce. However, racism continues to be a major challenge to achieving this goal.
  • Prejudice towards ladies in hijab: Is it baseless?
  • Racism: Is it rooted in fear?
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Argumentative Essay Ideas on Racism

  • Does police brutality exist for other ethnicities other than African Americans?
  • Do prisons treat Caucasians differently than other ethnic groups?
  • Should prisons be segregated by race?
  • Educational Institutions take to Address Systemic Racism Description: Racism is a social issue that has existed for a long time, causing chaos among people from various races. It refers to discriminating against a person based on skin colour and ethnicity. Systematic racism, sometimes called institutional racism, refers to racism embedded in the regulations.
  • What countries are the most racist in the EU?
  • Do you agree with the statement, “there will always be color racism?”
  • Prejudice and racism: Are they the same thing?
  • What can be done to create pathways for more minority judges to take the bench?
  • Does Islamophobia separate minority populations in prison?
  • Is enough being done in the legal system to deter and punish hate crimes?
  • Should there be a zero-tolerance policy for racially biased police brutality?
  • Racial Discrimination: How We Can Face Racism Description: One of the most effective approaches to face racism and defeat it is through teaching the people its detrimental effects and how each one of us can be an agent of change. (Argumentative Essay Topics on Racism)

Theories of race and racism in an Administration of Justice, Criminal Justice race, gender and Class

These are just a few examples – there are literally endless possibilities when it comes to racism that you can write about in an argumentative essay . So, if you’re looking for some inspiration, don’t hesitate to check out these Research Paper Ideas on Racism with prompts!

Research Paper Ideas on Racism with prompts

  • Xenophobia, Racism and Alien Representation in District 9 Prompt: The term alien has many connotations for different people, from the scientific theory and sci-fi representations of extra-terrestrial life to the resurgence in modern society of legal uses regarding immigration. In popular culture these uses can often coincide whether metaphorical, allegorical, or explicit.
  • White and Black Team in Remember the Titans Prompt: Reducing prejudice essentially entails changing the values and beliefs by which people live. For many reasons, this is difficult. The first is that the ideals and expectations of individuals are also a long-standing pillar of their psychological stability.
  • Transformation of the American Government and “Tradition of Exclusion” Prompt: The United States of America is a country known for its pride in its democratic government, where the American Dream encourages everyone to strive for the very best. That rhetoric is deeply rooted in every aspect of life in this country from its conception until…
  • This is America: Oppression in America in Glover’s Music Video Prompt: A common topic we see in our society is the debate of gun control in America. It has been an ongoing argument due to the mass of shootings in schools, churches, nightclubs, etc. The number of shootings has only been increasing over the years.
  • Theory of Slavery as a Kind of Social Death Prompt: The Orlando theory of slavery as a social death is among the first and major type of full-scale comparative study that is attached to different slavery aspects.
  • The Review of the Glory Road Prompt: Glory Road is an American sports drama film directed by James Gartner, in view of a genuine story encompassing the occasions of the 1966 NCAA University Division Basketball Championship. It was released on 13th January 2006.
  • The Relationship Between Racism and the Ideology of Progress Prompt: Through the years, as a result of the two world wars and the Great Depression, the term progress and the meaning attached to it greatly suffered.
  • The Racial Discrimination in Bob Dylan’s Song Prompt: President John F. Kennedy delivered a powerful message to the American People on June 11th of 1963, calling Congress to view civil rights as a moral obligation instead of a legal issue.
  • The People Segregation by Society in Divergent Prompt: It is clear that the society in Divergent places unrealistic limits on its members identities from the beginning of the book. Segregating different personality types into different factions not only has consequences on society but on the individual.
  • The Influence of Racial Or Ethnic Discrimination a Person’s Self-concept Prompt: Discrimination and prejudiced attitudes are assumed to be damaging aspects of society. The research presents the cognitive, emotional, and social damages related to experiencing discrimination. This research proposal focuses on determining the impacts of prejudice and how it negatively affects an individual. (Argumentative Essay Topics on Racism)
  • Find out more on  Argumentative Essay Topics About Social Media [Updated]

Racism research paper  outline

The social issues that we face today are more complex and multifaceted than ever before. And, as a result, there are a lot of great argumentative essay topics on racism. Here are just a few examples: racism research paper outline

Research Questions on Racism

  • Have you seen the video of George Floyd’s death? What was your reaction to it? How did it make you feel?
  • How would you define racism?
  • How have you experienced racism towards yourself or others? How did it make you feel?
  • Has anyone ever assumed something about you because of the color or your skin? If so, explain.
  • Have you ever assumed something about someone else because of the color of their skin? If so, explain.
  • Has anyone ever called you the “N” word or referred to others in that way while you were present? If so, please share what happened.
  • Why do you think racism exists in today’s society? How do you think it will affect your future?
  • How has the police brutality and the protests/demonstrations impacted you on a personal level?
  • Do you feel your relationship with God makes you better equipped to handle all that is going within society concerning race? Why or why not?
  • Do you think it is important to celebrate the differences in people? Why or why not?
  • Is it important to have oneness in Christ or sameness in Christ? Explain. Do you think there is a difference between the two? Explain.
  • How do you think we can move forward and carry out racial reconciliation as a society?

Great Racism Research Paper Topics

  • What are the effects of racism on society?
  • How can we stop racism from spreading in contemporary society?
  • The mental underpinnings of racism
  • How does racism impact a person’s brain?
  • Amounts of racism in various social groups
  • The importance of socialization in racial and ethnic groups
  • How does racial tension affect social interactions?
  • The following are some ideas for essays on racism and ethnicity in America.
  • Interethnic conflict in the United States and other countries
  • Systematic racism exists in America.
  • Racism is prevalent in American cities.
  • The rise of nationalism and xenophobia in America.
  • Postcolonial psychology essay topics for Native Americans
  • Latin American musical ethnography issues.
  • Legacy of Mesoamerican Civilizations
  • Endangered Native American languages
  • What steps are American businesses taking to combat racism?
  • The role of traditionalism in contemporary Latin American society
  • Ethnopolitical conflicts and their resolutions are good topics for African American research papers.
  • The prevalence of racism in hate crimes in the US.
  • Latin America Today: Religion, Celebration, and Identity
  • National politics of African Americans in contemporary America.

Good racism essay topics:

  • Why Should We Consider Race to Understand Fascism?
  • The Racial Problem in America
  • Postwar Race and Gender Histories: The Color of Sex
  • The Relevance of Race in Fascism Understanding
  • Cases of Racial Discrimination in the Workplace in the United States
  • Problems with Gender, Race, and Sexuality in Modern Society
  • “Frankie and Alice”: Race and Mental Health
  • The history of immigration, race, and labor in America
  • Power and racial symbolism in Coetzee’s “Disgrace.”
  • In America, race and educational attainment are related.
  • Race to the Top: The Early Learning Challenge
  • Social learning, critical racial theory, and feminist theories
  • Minority Crime and Race in the United States
  • Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity in society
  • Documentary series “Race: The Power of an Illusion.”

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Education Related Topics

Racism Topics for Essay & Research

Racism Topics: Racism is a deeply rooted and pervasive social issue that has plagued societies throughout history. It is a belief system that perpetuates discrimination, prejudice, and unequal treatment based on race or ethnicity. The study of racism involves understanding its historical, cultural, and structural dimensions, as well as examining its impact on individuals, communities, and institutions. By shedding light on the complexities of racism, researchers strive to challenge its existence, promote social justice, and foster equality for all. In this response, we will explore some important research topics related to racism that are relevant for understanding its origins, manifestations, and potential solutions.

Racism Topics

Topics about racism for essay, argumentative essay topics about racism, research questions about racism, easy essay topics for racism, racism research topics, essay topics on racism.

Historical Analysis of Racism: Investigate the historical origins and development of racism in different regions and time periods. Explore the factors that contributed to the rise of racist ideologies, such as colonialism, slavery, and the impact of scientific racism. Examine the legacy of historical racism and its continuing influence on contemporary societies.

Structural Racism and Institutional Discrimination: Study the systemic and institutionalized forms of racism that perpetuate inequality and disadvantage certain racial or ethnic groups. Examine how policies, practices, and structures within education, criminal justice, healthcare, employment, and housing contribute to racial disparities and marginalization. Explore strategies for dismantling structural racism and promoting racial equity.

Racial Identity and Intersectionality: Investigate how racial identity is constructed and experienced by individuals and communities. Explore the intersectionality of race with other social categories, such as gender, class, and sexuality, and how these intersecting identities shape experiences of discrimination and privilege. Examine the psychological and sociocultural aspects of racial identity development.

Microaggressions and Everyday Racism: Explore the concept of microaggressions, which are subtle, everyday acts of discrimination that communicate derogatory or negative messages to individuals based on their race. Investigate the impact of microaggressions on mental health, well-being, and identity formation. Examine strategies for recognizing and addressing microaggressions in various settings.

Find: Technology and Social Media Cause and Effect Essay Topics

Anti-Racism Education and Interventions: Study the effectiveness of educational interventions and programs aimed at reducing racism, promoting inclusivity, and fostering intercultural understanding. Explore strategies for addressing implicit bias and promoting empathy and allyship. Investigate the role of educational institutions, community organizations, and policymakers in implementing anti-racist initiatives.

Media Representation and Stereotyping: Investigate how media representations shape public attitudes, reinforce stereotypes, and perpetuate racial bias. Examine the role of media in shaping racial narratives, including the portrayal of racial and ethnic minorities in news, entertainment, and advertising. Explore alternative media platforms and interventions aimed at challenging harmful stereotypes and promoting positive racial representations.

Health Disparities and Racism: Study the impact of racism on health outcomes and healthcare disparities. Investigate the social determinants of health that contribute to racial disparities, such as access to healthcare, environmental racism, and racial bias in healthcare delivery. Explore strategies for promoting health equity and eliminating racial health disparities.

Racism and its impact on mental health.

Racism as a social problem.

Racism in education.

Racism in the criminal justice system.

Racism in the media.

Racism in the workplace.

The causes of racism.

The different forms of racism.

The effects of racism on individuals and society.

The history of racism and its impact on society.

Racism is a major barrier to social cohesion and harmony.

Racism is a major cause of discrimination and prejudice.

Racism is a major problem in our society today and it needs to be addressed.

Racism is a major source of tension and conflict in our society.

How do people of color experience racism in the United States?

How has racism changed over time in the United States?

How has racism impacted the lives of people of color in the United States?

What are the current manifestations of racism in the United States?

What are the economic effects of racism on people of color in the United States?

What are the educational effects of racism on people of color in the United States?

What are the health effects of racism on people of color in the United States?

What are the origins of racism in the United States?

What are the psychological effects of racism on people of color in the United States?

What are the social effects of racism on people of color in the United States?

The challenges of addressing racism in the workplace.

The challenges of living in a racially diverse society.

The different forms of racism and their effects on individuals and society.

The impact of racism on economic, social, and political life.

The impact of racism on personal relationships.

The role of education in combating racism.

The role of race in shaping individual and group identity.

The role of the media in perpetuating or challenging racism.

The ways in which racism is perpetuated through institutional policies and practices.

How can racism be prevented?

How does racism affect people?

How does racism affect society?

How has racism changed over time?

Is racism a global problem?

Racism and Discrimination in the Workplace

Racism and the Criminal Justice System

Racism in America: A History from Slavery to Today

The Impact of Racism on African Americans

The Impact of Racism on Mental Health

The Role of Media in Promoting Racism

The School-to-Prison Pipeline: How Racism Contributes to the Mass Incarceration of African Americans

What are the causes of racism?

What are the consequences of racism?

What are the different forms of racism?

What are the solutions to racism?

What is the history of racism?

Education is key to combating racism and promoting social justice.

Racism can be manifested in the form of individual prejudice, institutional discrimination, or hate crimes.

Racism has a long history in the United States, dating back to the colonial era.

Racism is a complex issue that cannot be solved overnight.

Racism is a form of discrimination that is based on the belief that one race is superior to another.

Racism is a global problem that affects people of all races and ethnicities.

Racism is a social construct that has been used to justify discrimination and violence against certain groups of people

Racism is often used as a justification for xenophobic and anti-immigrant sentiment.

The Black Lives Matter movement has brought renewed attention to the problem of racism in America.

The rise of Donald Trump and the alt-right has emboldened racists and white supremacists in the United States.

In conclusion, research on racism is crucial for understanding its complex nature and developing strategies to combat it effectively. By investigating the historical, structural, and psychological dimensions of racism, researchers can contribute to dismantling discriminatory systems, promoting social justice, and fostering inclusive societies. Through continued research and collective action, we can work towards creating a more equitable and just world for all individuals, regardless of their race or ethnicity.

Steve George

Steve George is Blogger, a marketer and content writer. He has B.A. in Economics from the University of Washington. Read more about Mzuri Mag .

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Racism Research Paper

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View sample racism research paper. Browse other  research paper examples and check the list of history research paper topics for more inspiration. If you need a history research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our custom writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Racism can be described as an extreme form of ethnocentrism (i.e., seeing one’s language, customs, ways of thinking, and material culture as preferable). But instead of using cultural factors to mark differences that can be overcome if some are willing and able to adopt beliefs and customs of others, racial boundaries depend on perceptions of physical distinctions between human body types, which are seen to be expressions of innate, biological divergence.

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A number of historians have argued that racial divisions and racist attitudes were already present in societies such as Greece and Vedic India in ancient times. In any meaningful usage, however, these ways of conceptualizing and responding to differences between human groups originated in an age of global expansion and cross-cultural interaction in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ce. This era saw the first sustained contacts between the Eastern and Western hemispheres as well as greatly intensified regional and intracontinental interactions among societies across the world. Like all of the other peoples involved in cross-cultural contacts in these centuries, the Europeans who traveled overseas to trade, explore, and proselytize were highly ethnocentric, that is inclined to see their languages, customs, ways of thinking, and material culture as preferable—if not superior—to those of the diverse societies they encountered in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. This very human propensity to emphasize cultural differences was much in evidence in ancient times among peoples such as the Greeks, who distinguished themselves from the “barbarians” because the latter could not speak Greek, or the Chinese, who viewed such nomadic, pastoral peoples as the Turks and Mongols as uncouth and inferior because they lived in regions with too little rainfall to support the sedentary agriculture and sophisticated urban lifestyles that the Chinese deemed essential for civilization.

Racism can be seen as an extreme form of this ethnocentrism, which for a number of reasons explored below developed for the first time in the early modern era of expansion, and—at least in this time period—only among peoples of European descent. Rather than cultural markers of difference, which are malleable and can be overcome if some groups are willing and able to adopt the beliefs and customs of others, racial boundaries are based on perceptions of somatic or physical distinctions between human body types, which are seen to be expressions of innate, biological divergence. Although the physical attributes stressed by those who construct or adhere to beliefs in the racial distinctiveness of human groups have varied considerably by time period and the society in which they are nurtured, racist thinking has almost always encompassed convictions that some peoples are inherently superior or inferior to others and presumed—at least implicitly—that this state of inequality arises from innate and immutable differences in intelligence.

The Genesis of Race and Racism

Whether based on a sense of religious or material superiority, European ethnocentrism in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries CE was blinkered and self-congratulatory, but it was usually not racist in any meaningful sense of the term. Until the late seventeenth century, humanity was seldom divided into clearly demarcated categories by European travelers or writers, and when attempts were made to distinguish human types, the criteria were invariably vague and inconsistent. Physical differences between peoples encountered overseas were, of course, frequently described in considerable detail. But even in reports of contacts between the fairest-skinned northern Europeans and the darkest peoples of the rain forest regions of Africa or coastal South Asia, differences in skin pigmentation or hair texture are often noted in a matter-of-fact way. Contrary to the arguments of a number of Western scholars, which themselves may be expressive of ethnocentric preferences, European travelers did not necessarily admire light-skinned peoples more than “tawny” or “black” ones. In fact, numerous explorers explicitly commented on the beauty or well-proportioned bodies of both males and females of peoples described as dark-skinned. For example, Francois Bernier, one of the most famous French travelers of the late seventeenth century, was one of the first writers to attempt to classify the different types of humans he had encountered in his peregrinations. He had, however, very little to say about the basic human types that he proposed in a rather desultory way, and was a good deal more interested in ranking the peoples he had encountered according to which had the most beautiful women, which included at the top of his list relatively dark-skinned Egyptians and Africans. In a number of accounts by other Western observers, peoples described as tawny or black are ranked above their lighter-skinned neighbors in terms of their intelligence and the level of cultural development they have achieved. And few Europeans who traveled overseas made any attempt to link facial features or hair quality to more general assessments of a people’s aptitudes or intelligence. Like differences in culture, physical variations were usually linked to environmental influences rather than seen as innate products of reproduction and biological inheritance.

The Atlantic Plantation System and Slavery

It is still not clear exactly when attitudes and responses that were genuinely racist first emerged. But decades of careful research on the Atlantic slave trade and slave societies throughout the Americas have thoroughly documented the connection between chattel slavery as it developed in the centuries of European expansion into the Atlantic world and the emergence of increasingly elaborate arguments for the inherent and immutable differences between peoples sold into bondage for the slave plantations of the New World and the Europeans who shipped them across the Atlantic and profited from their enforced servitude. Even though we cannot determine precisely when and why the belief in extreme differences between Europeans and Africans was first articulated, by the seventeenth century it was widely held by the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and other nationals deeply involved in the slave trade. And there can be little question that the socioeconomic conditions under which the Atlantic slave trade was conducted directly affected the widespread acceptance of arguments for the Africans’ innate, or racial, inferiority, and in some circles the conviction that they were a separate species from the rest of humankind.

One ever feels his twoness–an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideas in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder.

W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963)

Early, inchoate racist sentiments were to some degree elicited by extreme differences in skin color and other obvious (but not genetically significant) variations in physical appearance between both those who sold slaves and those actually reduced to slave status. But cultural differences were in most cases far more critical in shaping European attitudes toward different peoples and societies. These ranged from the Africans’ alleged paganism—which was said to revolve around the “worship” of what the Europeans misguidedly lumped together as “fetishes”—to European disparagement of what they judged to be low levels of material development, based on everything from the coastal peoples’ lack of impressive stone structures (including forts), large cities, powerful rulers, and strong states, to their indifference to semi- or complete nudity. These assessments were, of course, problematic in a number of ways. To a significant degree, for example, they were shaped by the fact that the slave traders concentrated their activities in coastal areas, where, due to environmental conditions and human choice, political power was in fact less centralized than in much of Europe, and building materials and modes of dress were well suited to hot and humid ecosystems rather than the colder temperate conditions in the lands from which the Europeans set forth. The few European explorers who traveled inland throughout the vast savanna lands of the Sudanic belt (the desert and semi-arid zone between the North African Maghrib and the rainforest regions of West Africa) before the nineteenth century encountered impressive cities—such as Jenne and Timbuktu (Tombouctou)—as well as states and armies often larger than those in Europe, extensive trading networks, monumental architecture, and Islam, a monotheistic religion that had emerged from the Judeo-Christian tradition, and thus—despite intense Christian–Muslim rivalry—one Europeans could relate to their own. Because so much of what the Europeans found in the interior of Africa matched their ethnocentric expectations regarding human achievement and worth, the African peoples of the Sudanic zone were generally given more favorable treatment in Western writings. Until well into the nineteenth century, Europeans usually dissociated the peoples of the Sudanic zone from the racist strictures often directed against the peoples of the societies on the west and southwest coasts of the continent, where the slave trade was concentrated from the sixteenth through the nineteenth centuries.

Few of the European travelers, slave traders, merchants, or missionaries who became involved in ongoing cross-cultural exchanges with African coastal peoples had any real understanding of their complex, sophisticated social systems and religions or appreciation for their splendid art, music, and oral literature. In addition, most of the Africans whom Europeans came into contact with were either merchants engaged to varying degrees in the slave trade or groups and individuals who had the misfortune to be captured and marched to coastal entrepots in bondage, where they would be sold to the Europeans and transported to plantation societies across the Atlantic. Not only were the enslaved understandably profoundly disoriented and in states of shock and despair, they had been suddenly and violently snatched from the cultures where their skills were valued and they had won respect and social standing. In the Atlantic system, slaves were regarded as chattel, the property of other humans, and merely drudge labor. Even if they served as house servants on plantations in the Americas, they had no chance of becoming full members of the households and kinship networks to which they were usually connected in the largely domestic systems of slavery that predominated across most of Africa and Asia. Thus, there was little opportunity for most slaves to demonstrate their intelligence or talents. In fact, once enslaved, their burdens as laborers, and often their very survival, could depend on feigning incompetence or stupidity. “Smart” slaves were viewed with suspicion by members of the planter classes as potential troublemakers who might rouse others to resist the oppressive existence to which they had been condemned.

Whatever mix of these factors accounted for the emergence of racist attitudes among different European groups operating within the Atlantic slave trading network, on the plantations of the Americas, or in drawing rooms of Europe where natural philosophers deliberated over the latest treatise on the divisions within the human species, racist ideas were regularly enlisted in the defense of the enslavement of Africans and the brutal systems of social control that were essential to hold them in bondage. Emphasis on the innate inferiority of the African “race,” or in extreme cases the contention that Africans were subhumans, served to rationalize the lives of humiliation, servitude, and misery that tens of millions forced to labor in the Atlantic plantation system endured through over four centuries. In these same centuries, far smaller numbers of Asian peoples, such as the Malays imported into the Dutch Cape Colony in South Africa or impoverished bonded servants from the lower castes of India, were also enslaved by Europeans overseas. But at least until the late eighteenth century, there were few attempts to argue for the racial distinctiveness of these groups. And those, such as the effort by the sixteenth-century Spanish jurist Juan Gines Sepulveda, who sought to demonstrate that the indigenous peoples of the Americas were soulless subhumans who could legitimately be enslaved, were fiercely contested—most famously by the Dominican friar Bartolome de Las Casas, who energetically disputed Sepulveda’s contention that wars to subjugate Amerindian peoples were just. Although in recent decades there has been considerable debate over the extent to which North American settler colonists distinguished themselves from the indigenous peoples in racial terms, the evidence suggests that until the nineteenth century at least, settler prejudice against the Native Americans was predominantly based on perceived cultural rather than physical differences.

Scientific Verification and Theories of Race

Until the last decades of the eighteenth century, racial distinctions and the concept of race itself remained vague and mutable. Early attempts to distinguish basic types within the human species in the mid-seventeenth century were crude and impressionistic. It is believed that the first of these was by the humanist Isaac de la Peyrere who in a 1655 treatise on the descendants of Adam and Eve, chose skin color as his key marker and lumped most human groups according to whether they were reported as “red,” “yellow,” “black,” or “brown.” In the 1680s the indefatigable traveler Francois Bernier argued there were five main types of humans, including a catch-all “light-skinned” category and an equally variegated “African” grouping, and opined that the relatively minuscule Lapp herder peoples of the Scandinavian north composed a comparable category. Neither of these writers sought to set forth clear criteria on which these differences between human groups could be discerned and tested. A century later, a number of natural philosophers, most prominently the Scotsman Lord Monboddo, who had not even seen most of the peoples he wrote about, asserted that Africans, or Negroes, were closer (mainly on the basis of physical appearance) to apes than humans. In contrast to Lord Monboddo and other armchair naturalists, the physician Edward Long had lived for decades in the midst of the large African slave population in Jamaica. Large sections of Long’s History of Jamaica (first published in 1774) were devoted to descriptions of the unflattering physical features and signs of cultural debasement of the slave population that set them off from the European planter class. Like Monboddo, Long went to great lengths to chronicle the biological differences that made the Africans more akin to “lower” animal species than “whites.” But Long also argued at great length, and with considerable pretension to scientific authority, that miscegenation between Negroes and “whites” invariably resulted in infertile hybrids; thereby proving they were separate species.

In the last decades of the eighteenth century, a number of prominent scientists, including two Germans, S. T. Soemmering and Christopher Meiners, conducted extensive anatomical investigations of different human types, using mainly skeletal remains for which they had only limited non-European samples. The purpose of these exercises in comparative anatomy was to provide an empirical grounding for determining specific bodily differences between racial groups and to establish more precise—hence ostensibly scientific—classifications of basic racial types within the human species. Popularized, and in many cases seriously distorted, by numerous nineteenth-century racist thinkers, including physicians who sought to refine or revise the findings of earlier investigators, racial classifications proliferated steadily. In some cases race studies were merged with “scientific” explorations of innate criminal types or utilized in tracts by eugenicists and other evolutionist thinkers arguing for the prohibition of race mixtures or promoting ones deemed advantageous for the improvement of dominant, hence superior races, whether “Caucasian” or “Mongoloid.” By the middle decades of the nineteenth century, the scientific study of race had fostered the production of a remarkable variety of instruments to measure the anatomical features of cadavers, skeletons, and skulls of specimens for different racial groups. Increasingly, the focus of these efforts to quantify racial distinctions came to be concentrated on the comparative measurements of skull samples from different human groups. By the last decades of the century, the “science” of phrenology was pervasive in European societies, a constant presence in venues as disparate as the ponderous deliberations of scientific societies and anthropological associations, such best-selling books as the Sherlock Holmes mysteries by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, and the seaside amusement stands of Great Britain, where one could have one’s head measured in considerable detail for a small fee. The influence of evolutionary thinking, the assertion of Christian doctrine, and some of the more credible scientific studies led over the last half of the nineteenth century to the slow decline in the popularity of polygenetic explanations of racial difference, which traced them to separate creations, in favor of monogenetic theories, which stressed the essential unity of humankind, while attempting to argue ever wider, less permeable differences between racial types.

Racism and Ideologies of Oppression

In the half century before World War I and the two decades following the conflict, racial thinking reached the peak of its influence in shaping the ways in which societies in many parts of the world were organized, providing justifications for imperial expansion, supplying ideological fodder for mass social movements, and generating unprecedented intra-human strife and oppression. In the late nineteenth century, notions of racial superiority, often expressed in terms that were clearly nationalistic rather than biological, were constantly invoked by those who advocated colonial expansion and the domination of “lesser” peoples. Racist assumptions undergirded the civilizing mission ideology that was used to justify this aggressive behavior, explain away the marked decline in the living conditions of colonized peoples, and rationalize often draconian measures taken to repress popular resistance to imperial domination.

In colonies from Morocco to Vietnam, racist pronouncements informed all aspects of life from urban planning to schemes aimed at promoting the work ethic among the indigenous laboring classes. In the American South, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, many of the same ideas (though far less infused with scientific racism in the case of South Africa) provided the ideological basis for societies organized around extreme racial segregation and discrimination against people of color: African Americans in the southern United States; “kaffirs” or the Bantu-speaking majority in South Africa as well as immigrant Indians and mixed-race “coloreds”; Aboriginal people in Australia; and Maoris in New Zealand. In Germany, racist thinking intensified centuries-old religious and cultural prejudice against the Jews with ever more virulent expressions of anti-Semitism. After abetting the Nazi rise to power, racist invective made possible segregation, dispossession, removal and incarceration, and finally a massive, systematic campaign to exterminate not only the German Jews but all of those in the areas that were forcibly incorporated into the short-lived Nazi Empire from the late 1930s. In Japan in roughly the same decades, ultra-patriotic ideologues who stressed the importance of racial purity as the key to the superiority of the Japanese people played critical roles in launching an increasingly militarized society on the path to external aggression, empire building, and ultimately a disastrous war against the United States and its European and Pacific allies.

Racism Repudiated and the Persistence of Prejudice

Those who sought to develop a science of race or promoted racist ideologies in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were no more successful than earlier thinkers had been in establishing meaningful, widely agreed upon points of demarcation between different human groups, much less in setting forth acceptable, non-ethnocentric standards by which the superiority or inferiority of different racial types might be judged. In the early decades of the twentieth century, when the influence of racist-charged ideologies and demagogues as well as racial discrimination at the everyday levels of social interaction remained pervasive in societies across the globe, an intellectual counteroffensive was mounted. One of the prime movers of this assault on racist thinking was Franz Boas, a prominent German anthropologist who spent the most productive decades of his distinguished career training graduate students in the United States, among whom were Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict. Boas, the anthropologists his teaching inspired, and allied ethnographers challenged the widespread assumption that racism had been validated by objective, culturally neutral, scientific investigation. They also sought to supplant race or biological difference with an emphasis on cultural variations in the study of human societies. By the early 1940s, the genocidal nightmare that the Nazis unleashed across Europe in the name of race purity and the racially charged war then raging in the Pacific generated widespread revulsion against racist social and political agendas. In the decades that followed, the spread of movements for independence organized by colonized peoples across Asia and Africa, as well as civil rights agitation against the segregationist regimes in the American South and South Africa, further discredited theories of racial difference and their use to legitimize discrimination.

Despite these countervailing trends and campaigns explicitly aimed at eliminating racial prejudice mounted by international organizations such as the United Nations, racism has persisted both in popular attitudes in many societies and, in some instances, state policy, such as the regime based on institutionalized discrimination that lasted in South Africa well into the 1990s. In some of the more militant, extremist strands of movements for liberation from racial oppression, such as some Black Power organizations in the United States and settler Zionism in Palestine, reactive racist sentiments were nurtured. Theories of race were also kept alive by scientists and social pundits who persisted in efforts to demonstrate empirically that there were genetic differences, centered on intelligence quotient, or IQ, averages, in the capacities of different human groups. But by the final decades of the twentieth century, the idea of race and the racist prejudices and behavior that had been associated with it for nearly half a millennium were rejected by the overwhelming majority of scientists and social thinkers worldwide.

Bibliography:

  • Adas, M. (1989). Machines as the measure of men: Science, technology, and ideologies of western dominance. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
  • Barkan, E. (1992). The retreat of scientific racism. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
  • Curtin, P. (1964). The image of Africa: British ideas and action, 1780-1850. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Fredrickson, G. (1971). Towards a social interpretation of the development of African racism. In N. I. Huggins et al. (Eds.), Key issues in the Afro-American experience. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.
  • Fredrickson, G. (2002). Racism: A short history. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  • Gould, S. (1981). The mismeasure of man. New York: Norton.
  • Holt, T. (1995). Marking: Race, race-making, and the writing of history. American Historical Review, 100(1), 1-20.
  • Jordan, W. (1968). White over black: American attitudes toward the Negro, 1550-1812. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
  • King, J. (1981). The biology of race. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Mosse, G. (1964). The crisis of German ideology: Intellectual origins of the Third Reich. New York: Grosset & Dunlap.
  • Pagden, A. (1982). The fall of natural man. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
  • Vaughn, A. (1995). Roots of American racism. New York: Oxford University Press.

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racism research paper topics

Racism Research Paper Topics That Will Help You Excel

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06 Dec 2019

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If you’re looking for help with a research paper about racism, this blog-post is precisely what you need. Further, you’ll find professional tips, writing guidance, and, most importantly, the list of remarkable research topics that will help you prepare a worthy essay.

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Tips on Choosing Racism Research Paper Topics

The process of writing any research paper starts with picking its theme, and the racism essays are no exception. Sometimes teachers offer a list of topics to choose from; in this situation you should opt for the one that’s both familiar and interesting. However, in most cases, students are supposed to generate ideas themselves. Although at first, it may be difficult to focus on some particular issue, after a short research, you’ll realize that there are many possible topics. You can look for inspiration in scientific publications such as scholar journals, textbooks, and reference books available in your school library. Besides, you can check the online databases, educational sites, and online forums. Often, it’s enough to make a simple online request like “research paper racism” to come across some good suggestions.

Once you’ve chosen a topic, conduct some background research on it to make sure you can find enough relevant information to support your arguments. Your next step is creating an initial outline; it can be used as the backbone of your future paper. Unless specified otherwise by your teacher, a racism research paper outline should include:

  • An introductory part with a thesis statement;
  • ‘Body’ part;
  • Conclusion;
  • Reference page.

Remember that a topic defines the further course of your research work. Keep looking for more information on the subject and take notes. Gradually turn your outline into a detailed draft. Keep revising and editing it until you come up with the final version. Proofread and format your research paper before submission. Although the process of composing a racism essay might be demanding and time-consuming, with due effort, it will definitely pay off.

Decent Ideas for Racism Research Papers

In academic papers, ethnic and racial discrimination can be presented through the prism of various aspects of people’s lives, including politics, law, economics, history, psychology, and social culture. Depending on the subject you study, your teacher can ask to explore the issues that concern racism with the focus on a particular aspect. On the other hand, such historical events as civil rights movements in the US in the 1960-70s, racist policy in Nazi Germany, and Apartheid in South Africa are considered to be a fruitful ground for all-round researches. Further we provide a range of themes that can be used both for essays on a single subject and in a broader sense. For your convenience, they are divided into categories.

Easy racism topics

  • Psychological background and consequences of racism;
  • Effective ways to oppose hate speech on social networks;
  • What strategies can promote diversity and reduce discrimination?
  • Do discriminatory tendencies exist in animal behavior?

Racism research topics: sociology

  • Racism and Islamophobia as the result of the 9/11 attacks;
  • Should African and Native Americans be provided with social reparations?
  • Recent changes in white beauty ideals in media;
  • Relations between race and poverty.

Racism research topics: history

  • Relationships between black and white women in the women’s rights movement in the 1960s;
  • History and prominent leaders of the Black Power movement;
  • Historical circumstances that led to the creation of Ku Klux Clan;
  • Can antislavery ideas be considered the main reason for the Civil War?

Winning Topics for a Worthy Racism Research Paper

Many students consider argumentative and analytical racism research papers to be difficult because they require meticulous research and thought-through planning. However, with a great topic, the writing process will become exciting and interesting. Impress your teacher with these advanced themes:

  • The impact of the racial anti-Semitism on the Holocaust;
  • A caste system on the Philippines and in Spanish America;
  • The legislation of Apartheid in South Africa;
  • What are the consequences of aboriginal racism in Australia?
  • Should we consider “Irishness” to be a display of racism?
  • What career and educational barriers are caused by racism?
  • Does the expression “third world” root in racism?
  • Could racism be called an artificial concept?

Without a doubt, racism can be considered a serious problem, which even today, in the 21st century affects lives of millions of people around the globe. Composing an academic essay on racism is a task that many students find to be challenging. If you experience difficulties with finding a good research topic, can’t find relevant information, or are extremely short on time, you can reach out for professional and effective research papers help . Experts working at WePapers.com – one of the top research paper writing websites – will help you in any stage of preparing an outstanding paper about racism!

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

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One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

  • Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
  • Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
  • How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
  • How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
  • How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
  • How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

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Current Events

  • What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
  • How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
  • How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
  • Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
  • What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
  • What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
  • How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
  • How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
  • How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
  • What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
  • What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
  • What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
  • Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
  • Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
  • Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
  • Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
  • Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
  • Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
  • How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
  • What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
  • Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
  • What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
  • How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
  • What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
  • Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
  • Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
  • Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
  • How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
  • Should graduate students be able to form unions?

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  • What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
  • How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
  • Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
  • Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
  • How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
  • How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
  • Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
  • Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
  • Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
  • Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
  • Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
  • Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
  • Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
  • Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
  • Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
  • What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
  • How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
  • How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
  • What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
  • What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
  • Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
  • What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
  • What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
  • Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
  • Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
  • How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
  • Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
  • What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
  • How does stress affect the body?
  • Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
  • What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
  • Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
  • How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
  • What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
  • What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
  • Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
  • What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
  • What were the causes of the Civil War?
  • How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
  • Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
  • What caused Hitler's rise to power?
  • Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
  • What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
  • How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
  • What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

main_lincoln

  • Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
  • Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
  • How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
  • How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
  • What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
  • What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
  • How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

  • How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
  • How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
  • Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
  • Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
  • How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
  • How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
  • What are the pros and cons of fracking?
  • What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
  • What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
  • How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
  • Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
  • Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
  • What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
  • What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
  • How are black holes created?
  • Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
  • How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
  • Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
  • How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
  • Has social media made people more or less connected?
  • What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
  • Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
  • What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
  • How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
  • When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
  • Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

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How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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